Conservation resource allocation,small population resiliency,and the fallacy of conservation triage

Some conservation prioritization methods are based on the assumption that conservation needs overwhelm current resources and not all species can be conserved; therefore, a conservation triage scheme (i.e., when the system is overwhelmed, species should be divided into three groups based on likelihood of survival, and efforts should be focused on those species in the group with the best survival prospects and reduced or denied to those in the group with no survival prospects and to those in the group not needing special efforts for their conservation) is necessary to guide resource allocation. We argue that this decision-making strategy is not appropriate because resources are not as limited as often assumed, and it is not evident that there are species that cannot be conserved. Small population size alone, for example, does not doom a species to extinction; plants, reptiles, birds, and mammals offer examples. Although resources dedicated to conserving all threatened species are insufficient at present, the world's economic resources are vast, and greater resources could be dedicated toward species conservation. The political framework for species conservation has improved, with initiatives such as the UN Sustainable Development Goals and other international agreements, funding mechanisms such as The Global Environment Facility, and the rise of many nongovernmental organizations with nimble, rapid-response small grants programs. For a prioritization system to allow no extinctions, zero extinctions must be an explicit goal of the system. Extinction is not inevitable, and should not be acceptable. A goal of no human-induced extinctions is imperative given the irreversibility of species loss.     

Nitrogen Turnover and Nitrate Leaching after Bark Beetle Attack in Mountainous Spruce Stands of the Bavarian Forest National Park

More than 85% of the mountainous spruce forest of the Bavarian Forest National Park died after bark beetle attack during the last decade. The elemental budget of intact stands and of different stages after the dieback was investigated. N-fluxes in throughfall of intact stands were lower (12–16 kg ha^-1 a^-1) than in an earlier study in an intact mountainous spruce stand in the Bavarian Forest National Park and were reduced in the first years after the dieback (3–5 kg N ha^-1 a^-1). Nitrate-N fluxes by seepage water of intact stands at 40 cm depth, which is below the main rooting zone, were moderate (5–9 kg ha^-1 a^-1). After the dieback of the stands, NH₄ ⁺ concentrations were increased in humus efflux as were NO₃ ^- concentrations in mineral soil. Due to the relatively high precipitation, dilution of the elemental concentrations in seepage was considerable.Therefore, NO₃ ^- concentrations were usually below the level of drinking water (806 μmol NO₃ ^- L^-1), with lowest concentrations after the snowmelt and highest in autumn. Nitrate concentrations were elevated from the first year until the 7th year after the dieback. Total NO₃ ^--N losses by seepage until the 7th year after the dieback equalled 543 kg N ha^-1. Aluminium fluxesafter the dieback were enhanced in the mineral soil from 55 to 503 mmol_c m^-2 a^-1 (average of 8 yr), K⁺ fluxes from 8 to 37 mmol_c m^-2 a^-1, and Mg²⁺ fluxes from 13 to 35 mmol_c m^-2 a^-1. The consequences for the nutritional status of the ecosystem, the hydrosphere, and forest management are discussed in the paper.     

Options for baselines of the clean development mechanism

The Kyoto Protocol created the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) to allow industrial countries to reach part of their greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction through projects in developing countries. To calculate the achieved emission reduction a reference scenario has to be developed – the baseline. Despite efforts to develop realistic baselines, a certain degree of uncertainty regarding actual reductions will be inevitable. It is therefore necessary to compare the costs (including transaction costs) of developing a baseline against the informational benefit it can be expected to produce. While project-related baselines are already being applied, the proponents of country-related baselines have still to show the applicability of their approach for the CDM. The possibility of quantifying indirect effects and considering market distortions and subsidies through aggregation in the country-related baselines is weighed up by the manipulability and uncertainty of the assumptions required in such a baseline. Thus project-specific baselines are recommended. In cases of severely distorted markets undergoing liberalization or subsidy phase-out, a country-related baseline can be helpful. Sectoral or programme baselines would be suited to large-scale energy and sequestration projects. Moreover it has to be considered whether emission reductions are generally achieved in the context of relocation or done in the context of global emitting capacity expansion.     

Low Genetic Variability in the Hawaiian Monk Seal

The Hawaiian monk seal (   Monachus schauinslandi) is a critically endangered species that has failed to recover from human exploitation despite decades of protection and ongoing management efforts designed to increase population growth. The seals breed at five principal locations in the northwestern Hawaiian islands, and inter-island migration is limited. Genetic variation in this species is expected to be low due to a recent population bottleneck and probable inbreeding within small subpopulations. To test the hypothesis that small population size and strong site fidelity has led to low within-island genetic variability and significant between-island differentiation, we used two independent approaches to quantify genetic variation both within and among the principal subpopulations. Mitochondrial control region and tRNA gene sequences (359 base pairs) were obtained from 50 seals and revealed very low genetic diversity (0.6% variable sites), with no evidence of subpopulation differentiation. Multilocus DNA fingerprints from 22 individuals also indicated low genetic variation in at least some subpopulations (band-sharing values for "unrelated" seals from the same island ranged from 49 to 73%). This method also provided preliminary evidence of population subdivision (  F'_st estimates of 0.20 and 0.13 for two adjacent island pairs). Translocations of seals among islands may therefore have the potential to relieve local inbreeding and possibly to reduce the total amount of variation preserved in the population. Genetic variation is only one of many factors that determine the ability of an endangered species to recover. Maintenance of existing genetic diversity, however, remains an important priority for conservation programs because of the possibility of increased disease resistance in more variable populations and the chance that inbreeding depression may only be manifest under adverse environmental conditions.     

可持续的建筑:一个瑞典公司的实践

Skanska公司是世界上第二大建筑公司.它建造家庭住宅、商业建筑(例如,办公室、大型购物中心和旅馆)以及运输基本设施,包括道路、隧道与桥梁.我们的产品和服务影响着发达与发展中国家中许多人的生活,也影响工地周围的人民(例如,由于交通拥挤和产生噪音和灰尘).……     

137Cs determination and mutagenicity tests in wild Mus musculus domesticus before and after the Chernobyl accident

Wild rodents were collected alive in a suburban area to the north of Rome before, during, 6 months and 1 year after the Chernobyl accident. Radionuclide determinations to assess their content of (137)Cs and mutagenicity tests (bone-marrow micronucleus test and sperm abnormalities assay) were performed on the captured animals. The results obtained for the species Mus musculus domesticus (which was the rodent captured in highest numbers), compared with the results obtained before the fallout, showed an increase of both micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes (MPCEs/1000 PCEs) and (137)Cs content during and after the fallout.     

Acetate uptake from ambient water by the free-living marine nematodeAdoncholaimus thalassophygas

Nematodes belonging to the family Oncholaimidae are known to aggregate at sites of organic pollution. The oncholaimidAdoncholaimus thalassophygas (De Man, 1876), collected from the Weser Estuary, FRG, in 1989, has the capability to take up acetate at naturally occurring concentrations. Under almost axenic conditions, ca 2.3 to 3.0 ng sodium acetate was taken-up per worm within 24 h, when an ambient concentration of 0.33 mmol was offered. The concentration factor was ca 8.5 to 11.1. The results suggest that a highly motile oxybiotic nematode may benefit from the fermentation products of anoxic habitats.Contribution No. 251 of the Alfred-Wegener-Institute for Polar and Marine Research     

Virucidal Efficacy of a Hydrogen Peroxide Nebulization Against Murine Norovirus and Feline Calicivirus,Two Surrogates of Human Norovirus

Human noroviruses (HuNoV) are amongst the leading causes of acute non-bacterial gastroenteritis in humans and can be transmitted via person-to-person contact, via contact with contaminated surfaces or by consumption of contaminated food. Contaminated surfaces in healthcare settings contribute to the transmission of viruses. No-touch automated room disinfection systems might prevent such a spread of contamination and thus their virucidal effect needs to be evaluated. The aim of this study was to assess the efficacy of a nebulization system spraying hydrogen peroxide on two main surrogates of HuNoV, namely murine norovirus (MNV) and feline calicivirus (FCV). The viruses were dried on cover glasses and on stainless steel discs and exposed to nebulization. The number of infectious viral particles and genomic copies before and after the nebulization was compared. The efficacy in reducing infectivity of both surrogates was demonstrated. For the infectious viral titre of MNV and FCV, a log₁₀ reduction factor ≥4.84 and 4.85 was observed after nebulization, respectively, for tests on cover glasses and ≥3.90 and 5.30, respectively, for tests on stainless steel discs. Only low reductions in genomic copy numbers were observed for both surrogates. The nebulization of hydrogen peroxide showed a clear virucidal effect on both HuNoV surrogates, MNV and FCV, on two different carriers and the use of nebulization should be promoted in complementarity with conventional disinfection methods in healthcare settings and food processing facilities to reduce viral load and spread of contamination.     

Alignment of threat,effort, and perceived success in North American conservation translocations

The use of conservation translocations to mitigate human effects on biodiversity is increasing, but how these efforts are allocated remains unclear. Based on a comprehensive literature review and online author survey, we sought to determine the goals of translocation efforts, whether they focus on species and regions with high threat and likelihood of perceived success, and how success might be improved. We systematically searched the ISI Web of Knowledge and Academic Search Complete databases to determine the species and regions of conservation translocations and found 1863 articles on conservation translocations in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Central America, and Caribbean published from 1974 to 2013. We questioned 330 relevant authors to determine the motivation for translocations, how translocations were evaluated, and obstacles encountered. Conservation translocations in North America were geographically widespread (in 21 countries), increased in frequency over time for all animal classes (from 1 in 1974 to 84 in 2013), and included 279 different species. Reintroductions and reinforcements were more common in the United States than in Canada and Mexico, Central America, or the Caribbean, and their prevalence was correlated with the number of species at risk at national and state or provincial levels. Translocated species had a higher threat status at state and provincial levels than globally (International Union for Conservation of Nature Red List categorization), suggesting that translocations may have been motivated by regional priorities rather than global risk. Our survey of authors was consistent with these results; most translocations were requested, supported, or funded by government agencies and downlisting species at national or state or provincial levels was the main goal. Nonetheless, downlisting was the least reported measure of success, whereas survival and reproduction of translocated individuals were the most reported. Reported barriers to success included biological factors such as animal mortality and nonbiological factors, such as financial constraints, which were less often considered in the selection of release sites. Our review thus highlights discrepancies between project goals and evaluation criteria and between risk factors considered and obstacles encountered, indicating room to further optimize translocation projects.     

Evaluation of the forest growth simulator SILVA on dominant trees in mature mixed Silver fir–Norway spruce stands in South-West Germany

Forest growth simulators go beyond a mere tabulation of empirical measurements by employing biometric models that functionally describe the dependence of forest growth of the initial forest structure, growth conditions and management regime. This makes them very flexible and allows predicting growth reactions for unknown and/or complex forest growth scenarios. When simulation outcomes are to be used in silvicultural strategic planning, the results are of direct and delicate importance, and the correct simulator performance must be ascertained. This is especially so when the considered forest situation differs from the forest data used to parameterise the model (e.g. different geographical region).In this article, the forest growth simulator SILVA (version 2.2) was validated for 55 long-term experimental plots of mature mixed Silver fir–Norway spruce stands in southwest Germany (Picea abies, Abies alba). The evaluation was restricted to the upper canopy trees during the survey period 1989–2004. Following the general evaluation criteria for ecological models from [Vanclay, J.K., Skovsgaard, J.P., 1997. Evaluating forest growth models. Ecol. Mod. 98, 1–12], a specific methodology was developed to evaluate the simulated height and diameter growth on the basis of forest growth principles.The qualitative analysis proved the SILVA growth algorithms to be in accordance with physiologically based standard growth equations. The quantitative evaluation was limited by incomplete knowledge of the site conditions. To overcome this problem, the experimental plots were regarded as a “heterogeneous growth series” which allows analysing the growth behaviour in a more general way. It could be shown that for the given data set, the SILVA simulations produced an overestimation of height growth (median: +61% spruce, +12% fir), and an underestimation of diameter growth and competition sensitivity (median: ?16% spruce, ?70% fir). The errors partially compensated in the volume growth resulting in an overall over-/underestimation of +9% for spruce and ?58% for fir (median).The unbalanced height and diameter growth cannot be compensated by a change in the site conditions because this affects both height and diameter growth either positive or negative. Hence, an adjustment of selected parameterisation values appears to offer the best solution to adapt SILVA to the considered forest situation. This approach of adaptive parameterisation is discussed against a more general background of deductive vs. inductive forest growth modelling.