Heavy metal concentration in the moss Pleurozium schreberi in the Niepołomice Forest,Poland: changes during 20 years

The Niepoomice Forest is a large forestcomplex (110 km²) situated in southern Poland 10 to 30 kmto the east of the urban industrial Kraków agglomeration andsteelworks, which was built up on the outskirts of the city in1950. Due to prevailing westerly winds, the forest is affectedby pollutants emitted by both the steelworks and the city. Thelevel of heavy metal contamination in the Niepoomice Forestwas described using a sensitive bioindicator – the moss Pleurozium schreberi. Mean concentrations of metals in mosscollected in the Niepoomice Forest were Cd – 0.71, Cr – 2.4,Cu – 8.6, Fe – 673, Pb – 12.7, and Zn – 61 mg/kg.Concentrations of heavy metals in moss in the NiepoomiceForest decreased in time. As compared with the relatively cleanarea in north-eastern Poland (Puszcza Biaowieska), the concentration of Fe was 2–9 fold and Pb 4–6 fold higher in theNiepoomice Forest in 1975, while in 1998 4 fold and 2 fold,respectively. In both 1975 and 1998 the most polluted by heavymetals was the western part of the Niepoomice Forest (closestto the pollution sources) and the area along the roads insidethe forest complex.     

Mercury Vapor Determination in Hospitals

The measurements of metallic mercury vapor were carried out in seven local hospitals, where mercury-containing products are widely used, as well as in one residence to check effectiveness of decontamination after mercury spillage. Hopcalite as a solid sorbent was used in active and passive sampling methods, and mercury was analyzed by CV-AAS technique. Good agreement was found between results of mercury measurements using active samplers (pumped hopcalite adsorption tubes) and passive (diffusion) monitors applied in indoor atmosphere. The results indicated the presence of metallic mercury vaporization sources in the assessed hospital rooms but in the majority of cases mercury levels did not exceed 1 g/m³ i.e. Polish permissible concentration for residence. However, in some of the hospital rooms, elevated concentrations of mercury vapor were found and airborne levels of up to 13.9 g/m³ were recorded. Higher concentrations of mercury vapor were observed in autumn season when compared to summer.     

Exposure estimates in assessing helath effects of air pollution

Air pollution has been associated with adverse health effects. Difficulties in interpreting studies of health effects of exposure to air pollution arise in estimating exposure. Until recently, studies of effects of air pollution have relied on pollution exposure measurements obtained from fixed location air pollution stations monitoring outside air (to evaluate compliance with air quality standards, rather than to examine population exposure). However, recent evidence suggests that there are substantial differences between air pollution levels measured at such sites and levels to which people are actually exposed, i.e. personal exposure. The present study examines effects of ambient urban air pollution on persons suffering from asthma, healthy non-asthmatic subjects and school children (in 2 Canadian cities, Toronto and Hamilton). Air pollution exposure is being assessed by data obtained from: (1) conventional abatement oriented fixed location air pollution monitoring stations, (2) an extensive population oriented network, (3) inside and (4) outside structures (homes and schools) as well as (5) personal air pollution samplers. The data indicate variability in these different estimates of exposure which have implications on health effects assessment.     

Soil-Water Partitioning and Desorption Hysteresis of Volatile Organic Compounds from a Louisiana Superfund Site Soil

The adsorption and desorption of three volatile organic compounds (1,2- dichloroethane, 1,1,2- trichloroethane and 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane) from a previously uncontaminated clayey soil sample from a Superfund site in North Baton Rouge,Louisiana was studied. In the linear range of the adsorption isotherm, the partition constants were not affected by the presence of the co-solutes. The adsorption isotherms over a wide concentration range on the soil followed the nonlinearFreundlich isotherm. The desorption of the compounds showedsignificant hysteresis at all concentrations studied. Approximately 20 to 70% of the adsorbed mass of organic compounds resisted the desorption even after five months ofsuccessive desorption steps. The desorption of four compounds(1,2-dichloroethane, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, 1,4-dichlorobenzeneand hexachlorobutadiene) from a contaminated soil sample fromthe same site was also studied. The aqueous concentration declined as the successive desorption steps progressed. For hexachlorobutediene the desorption can be visualized as occurring in two stages. The first stage involved a loosely bound or reversible fraction and the second stage involveda tightly bound or resistant fraction.     

Persistent organochlorine residues in fish and water birds from the Biobio river,Chile

Concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), DDT and its metabolites, HCH isomers and hexachlorobenzene (HCB) were determined in fish and birds from different locations in the Biobio river basin (central Chile). Samples collected near the mouth of the river contained high concentrations of PCBs, reflecting the massive use of these xenobiotics in the urban and industrial areas of Concepcion and Talcauano. Samples collected in the central part of the basin contained very high concentrations of lindane that coincide with the widespread use of lindane-based pesticides (purified -HCH) in this area. DDT was distributed homogeneously throughout the basin, except at Laguna Icalma, the source of the river in the Andes. Most PCB residues in fish and birds consisted of congeners between penta- and hepta-chlorobiphenyls. In fish, the predominant congeners were the pentachlorobiphenyl 23445 (IUPAC number 118) and the hexachlorobiphenyl 2234455 (PCB-153); in birds 224455 (PCB-180) prevailed.     

Routine Measurement of Dissolved Inorganic 15N in Precipitation and Streamwater

The difficulty of measuring 15N in dilute solutions has limited the potential of ecosystem labeling experiments and model comparisons. By concentrating the N from large (up to 20 L) water samples on ion-exchange resin columns, we obtained enough N for accurate and reproducible 15N measurement using the Teflon tape diffusion method. Analysis of standards demonstrated >95% recovery of inorganic N from samples, and 15N values comparable to those obtained using standard distillation methods. The value of the blank at our laboratory was 0.16 moles N. Analytical precision was within 2 15N when samples of streamwater from the Bear Brook Watersheds (1800 eq · ha-1 · yr-1 N addition at 192 15N) were kept frozen until analysis. The analytical process is lengthy, but once set up can easily be performed for large numbers of samples.     

Comparative Studies on the Usefulness of Seven Ecological Indices for the Marine Coastal Monitoring Close to the Shore on the Swedish East Coast

The simultaneous behaviour of seven ecological indices(Hurlberts, Margalefs, Menhinicks, Shannons,species number, Jaccards and saprobic index) wasstudied based on phytoplankton data close to the shoreon the East coast of Sweden during the summer 1998.The sampling stations had a similar eutrophicationlevel and were located in bays. Standard phytoplanktondatabases were used in calculating the indices, whichwere later compared using cluster analysis.Hurlberts, Margalefs, Menhinicks, Shannons andspecies number indices, as measure of communitydiversity, produced similar trends which oftendiffered from those based on Jaccards index ofsimilarity. However, the simultaneous use of theseindices was found meaningful as a possible part of themonitoring close to the shore. The application of asaprobic index lead to erroneous conclusions in thestudied case.     

Trace element contamination in industrial regions of Poland studied by moss monitoring

The use of terrestrial mosses as biomonitors in large-scalemulti-element studies of heavy metal deposition from theatmosphere is a well established technique in Europe. Insuch studies it is advantageous to determine as many elements as possible in order to distinguish betweendifferent source categories. A combination of INAA and AAShas been found very useful in this respect, in particularwhen epithermal activation is used for instrumental neutronactivation analysis. A total of 33 elements (Al, Cl, Sc, V,Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Br, Rb, Sr, Ag, Cd, Sb,I, Cs, Ba, La, Ce, Tb, Yb, Hf, Ta, W, Au, Pb, Th, and U) inPleurozium schreberi (Brid.) Mitt. moss samples fromthe Silesia-Kraków Industrial Region and Legnica-GogówCopper Basin and from the control (background) area inNortheast Poland were identified. The highest concentrationsof the majority of trace elements were found in mossesgrowing in the Silesia-Kraków Industrial Region, only Cu andAs concentrations were higher in mosses in the Legnica-Gogów Copper Basin. These results are in conformity withthe load of trace elements emissions in these areas.     

Comparison of macroinvertebrate sampling methods for nonwadeable streams

Bioassessment of nonwadeable streams in the United States is increasing, but methods for these systems are not as well-developed as for wadeable streams. In this study, we compared six macroinvertebrate field sampling methods for nonwadeable streams adapted from those used by three major programs: the U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program-Surface Waters, the U.S. Geological Surveys National Water Quality Assessment Program, and the Ohio Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Surface Water Biocriteria Program. We performed all six methods at 60 sites across four rivers and measured water chemistry and physical habitat at each site to assess abiotic conditon. Sites were divided into two groups: those influenced by navigational lock and dam structures (restricted flow, or RF) and those free-flowing or with lowhead dams (run-of-the-river, or ROR). Metrics based on passive Hester-Dendy artificial substrate samplers differed greatly from active sampling methods (i.e., using nets) but represented abiotic conditions well in both ROR and RF sites. Although metric values were similar across certain sampling methods, the metrics significantly correlated with abiotic variables varied among methods and between ROR and RF sites. These results emphasize that methods are not interchangeable, and the ability to detect certain stressors depends on sampling method.The U.S. Governments right to retain a non-exclusive, royalty free licence in and to any copyright is acknowledged.     

Application of remote sensing to exposure monitoring

Although exposure assessments cannot be completed remotely, remote sensing techniques provide an invaluable adjunct in exposure monitoring programs. Exposure can be defined as the summation over time, in all media, of the amount of a pollutant available at the exchange boundaries of the receptor during a specified period. This paper describes a few remote monitoring techniques that provide direct measurement input into an exposure assessment and several that furnish quantitative or qualitative information leading to decisions regarding how to monitor, such that the source-exposure-dose relationships can be fully defined. Two general classes of remote sensing systems are included in this discussion-passive and active. Passive systems depend on a measurement of the energy reflected or emitted by a target and active systems use an energy source, e.g., a laser to perform the environmental interrogation. Airborne as well as ground-based remote monitoring measurements or systems are also considered in this paper.     

A Method of Mercury Removal from Topsoil Using Low-Thermal Application

Mercury contamination in the environment is problematic due to the unusual physical properties and well-recognized toxicity of this common metal. The bioavailability of mercury depends strongly on its chemical speciation. Anthropogenic mercury and its compounds appear in soil as hot spots located close to industrial facilities that used or produced mercury. The nature of the chemical production process, transportation and disposal practices often determined the chemical composition and distribution of mercury in the surrounding soils. Current ex situ soil remediation methods are expensive, produce undesirable side effects to the environment and usually involve transportation of contaminated soil.In this project, sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, a low-cost, simple approach to removing mercury from soil was evaluated. The process uses low-temperature thermal desorption of volatile metallic mercury and its compounds, and subsequent vapor capture.The project consisted of laboratory and plot-scale experiments. The laboratory efforts evaluated theoretical calculations of mercury removal as a function of time and temperature. The plot-scale experiment was a practical application of the laboratory results. For both experiments, mercury-polluted soil was obtained from a chemical production facility located in southern Poland. In laboratory experiments, at temperature 373 K total mercury concentration decreased in soil by nearly 32%. In plot-scale experiments, at temperature 440 K, about 60–70% of total mercury was removed from the soil.At the end of the experiment, a test of soil biological activity was performed to check if the high temperature applied to the soil did not impair the soil growth properties. There was no negative effect of temperature found.     

A FRAMEWORK FOR THE ULTIMATE ENVIRONMENTAL INDEX – Putting Atmospheric Change Into Context With Sustainability

Assessing the major atmospheric issues – acidic deposition, climatechange, ozone depletion, smog, hazardous airpollutants and suspended particulate matter – together rather than individually provides many advantages. But to be successful, this integration requires a common method for relating theseissues to one another. This is a scientific question.In order to successfully resolve the atmospheric issues (a policy question) requires communication of the relevant science to non-scientists in plain language. Non-scientists need to be part of the development of the structure of the communications vehicle. The objective for multi-issueassessment, and thus for the development of an index to trackthe state of the environment in an integrated way, is of courserelated to the desire to achieve environmentally sustainable development.Sustainability can be represented by a 3-legged stool and is an aptsymbol of the struggle of Canadians to balance their ecological,economic and social needs. Although the environment is the basisof all life, humankind has created society and has defined how thatsociety will function (the economy). The three legs of the stool(ecosystem, economy, society) represent the three parts of thesustainability balance. The seat of the stool represents thegovernance process and the three legs are deeply embedded in thisgovernance process because it is the governance which ensures thestability of the system over time. The challenge then is to measure the stability of the stool in a waywhich all can understand. This measure of sustainability must respondto individual and collective actions which improve or degrade the environment. This paper presents such a framework for a sustainability index andoutlines the next steps that need to be taken.The framework starts from the premise that ecosystem, economy andsociety are equal parts of sustainability. Ecosystem indices arerepresentative measures of the state of the environment while economicindices are representative measures of the state of the economy. Socialindices in some way have to measure the state of society. The trick,for a successful sustainability index, will be to ensure that the importantaspects of the ecosystem, the economy and society, are included. The overall index must berelatively stable but must be responsive to changes.     

Biflagellated Unicellular Algae as Detectors of Pesticide Contamination in Water

The flagellae of the unicellular marine algae Dunaliella bioculata and the freshwater Chlamydomonas resemble very much the cilia lining the bronchial tubes in human lungs. Lindane the commercial product containing 99% of the isomer of hexachlorocyclohexane was tested at various concentrations on the two algae.The concentrations of Lindane tested (5ppm - 30ppm) proved to be cytotoxic and also had a remarkable effect on the motility of both Dunaliella bioculata and Chlamydomonas. The , and isomers of lindane showed similar efects on Dunaliella bioculata.Cytoxicity was measured by growth curves and motility was quantified by microcinematography and Doppler laser velocimetry methods.At low concentrations of all the isomers (5-10 ppm), there was an acceleration of movement which lasted for 5 minutes followed by rapid deceleration of movement.Dunaliella was tested with the ionophore (mobile ion carrier) A23187 for calcium at concentration of (10-5M). The results were compared with that of Dunaliella with lindane at 15ppm and a combination of lindane (15ppm) and Ionophore A23187 (10-5M).The results show that the ionophore A23187 (10-5M) enhances the effect of lindane on the motility of Dunaliella. This could suggest that lindane induced effects may be due to interferences with the intracellular calcium flux.     

Monitoring the biotic aspects of our environment as a policy instrument

As all environmental programs also programs monitoring the biotic aspects of our environment (dealt with in this article) should contribute to a more effective and efficient environmental policy. These programs have to function therefore (as no other type of environmental information does, according to the authors) as cheap and efficient early warning and early control systems, providing decision makers with important and reliable monitoring results.How these monitoring programs should function in the decision making process is illustrated in abstract in this article by a simple control system with feedback (as shown in Figures 1, 2 and 3).The monitoring programs dealt with in this article should enable us to detect and forecast changes in the most important biotic aspects of our environment and-by continuous monitoring-to control whether the use of policy instruments has been effective or not in averting or diminishing unwanted changes (problems).Two options of decision makers with respect to monitoring results are shown (either to disregard unwanted changes as a problem or to accept these changes as a problem and to do something about them). To contribute to an effective and efficient environmental policy monitoring results therefore have to be important and reliable enough to react upon.The question is raised which biotic aspects in our environment are (or have to be considered as) important (because of their own value, as indicators and/or as biotic conditions) and how reliable monitoring results can (have to) be obtained.It is discussed how environmentalists could try to make it more difficult for decision makers to duck the problems (by monitoring only important aspects and by using only perfectly clear targets and standards) and how they could try at the same time to make it easier for them to take action (by setting up integrated environmental monitoring programs in order to find out how desired and undesired changes can be influenced). The role of active publicity is stressed in this connection.     

Field Study of Wind and Traffic to Test a Street Canyon Pollution Model

In the U.K., local authorities have new duties to review and assess air quality. Dispersion models are important tools in this process. The performance of a street canyon model, AEOLIUS, in calculating carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations in urban areas is discussed. A field experiment was conducted in a busy street canyon in Leek, Staffordshire. Wind speed and direction were measured at three heights adjacent to the street. The canyon's CO concentrations and traffic counts were recorded. Predicted concentrations of CO, calculated using AEOLIUS, were compared with the observed values. The concept of a roof-top wind is discussed, as are the consequences of using wind measurements from outside the town. Choice of wind measurement location and height of the anemometer above the canyon had a pronounced effect on calculating the roof-top wind. Two methods of deriving a street level wind speed from a roof-top wind speed gave results that differ by up to a factor of two. AEOLIUS had variable skill at predicting CO concentrations depending on the roof-top wind direction: possible reasons for this variability are explored. A sensitivity study of the model showed that vehicle emissions have the greatest impact on predicted concentrations. Implications for local air quality management are discussed.     

Lead Content of Petrol and Diesel and its Assessment in an Urban Environment

Pakistan is one of the few countries in Asia thatcontinues to use only leaded-petrol as vehicular fuel. Theconcentration of Pb in its petrol reported in 1991 was thehighest (1.5 – 2.0 g Pb L^-1) of all produced by the various Asiancountries and far exceeded the WHOs guideline of 0.15 g Pb L^-1. We have undertaken a study to trace and quantify this toxicelement in the environs of Karachi, Pakistans major metropolis,having more than 30% of the nations total number of vehicles.In this article we report the Pb contents of petrol and dieselcurrently manufactured and marketed in the city. Samples of`Regular petrol collected in 1999 was found to contain 0.363 gPb L^-1 (range: 0.335 – 0.390 g Pb L^-1), a factor of 5 lower than thatmarketed prior to 1991. Its concentration in diesel fuel was muchlower (0.017 g Pb L^-1). Based on the available statistical data onthe type and volume of vehicular traffic, we assessed that thecurrent lead emission from vehicular traffic into the atmosphereis 391 metric tons a year, which is a factor of 2.7 lower thanthat estimated for 1989.     

The effect of atmospheric pollution on α-glycerophosphate dehydrogenase activity in the satin moth (Leucoma salicis (L.))

The purpose of this study was to investigate how various combinations of atmospheric pollutants may affect -GPDH activity in the satin moth. Enzyme activity was measured in crude larva and pupa as well as in hoogenates from the fat body and thoracic muscles of adults. The insects were divided into five groups and treated with dust (containing heavy metals) and gaseous pollutants (SO₂, NO_x) in different concentrations. Specific activity of -GPDH was the highest in thoracic muscles of adult satin moth and was significantly higher in males, regardless of their origin. Low concentration of SO₂ caused stimulation of enzyme activity but simultaneous action of SO₂, NO_x and heavy metal containing dust with accompanied acid precipitation caused inhibition of -GPDH activity, probably as the result of sulphite bounds with pyridine and flavin nucleotides.     

Biological effect-test systems for the early recognition of unexpected environmental changes

Pre-marketing assessments of chemicals regarding their potential environmental impacts contain numerous sources of error and uncertainties. Practices and methods for the evaluation of environmental risks posed by individual pre-selected agents seem unsuitable for detecting unexpected trends in the environment. This is particularly so in view of the multitude of anthropogenic assaults on the environment and their complex interactions. Therefore, requirements for symptom-oriented biological effect-test systems, bioprobes, capable of reacting sensitively to environmental changes of unknown origin were conceived. Bioprobes designed to detect biological effects should respond to a broad spectrum of anthropogenic chemicals. They are environmental quality measuring devices consisting of cultivated organisms, cells, organelles or biomolecules in combination with recording units. In contrast to traditional biotests for chemical testing, bioprobes are deliberately exposed to selected segments of the environment for certain periods of time. During and after such exposures, changes of defined biological states or process rates—observation elements—are registered.     

Determination of Endosulfans in Soil/Sediment Samples from Point Mugu, Oxnard, California Using Capillary Gas Chromatography/Mass Selective Detection (GC/MSD)

The extent of contamination by endosulfans in soil samples collected from the Point Mugu watershed near Oxnard, California was determined using capillary gas chromatography/mass selective detection (GC/MSD). The study was designed to detect three organochlorinated pesticides: endosulfan , endosulfan and endosulfan sulfate. Thirteen sets of two soil samples each were taken from various sites in the region. Our results show that the endosulfan levels in these soils range from trace amounts to nearly 30 ppm, with endosulfan being the most abundant and endosulfan sulfate the least. Two sites of the study, Hueneme and Revolon and Farm and Revolon, showed high amounts of endosulfans and , with concentrations between 20 and 30 ppm. The majority of the other sites studied in this research produced concentrations of less than 10 ppm for each of the three endosulfans monitored. At five areas in particular, Pleasant Valley and Creek, Laguna and Creek, Etting and Creek, Road and Creek and Hueneme and Creek, less than 2 ppm or only trace amounts of endosulfans , and sulfate were detected.     

Monitoring of the functioning of ecosystems

The theoretical basis, the content and the possible applications of the program Monitoring of ecosystems are considered. A functional definition of ecosystem is proposed, and some features of ecosystems are defined on this basis. The program Monitoring of ecosystems is visualized as a large-scale program of simple measurements of the rates of the main ecosystem processes. The expected results can be utilized in two ways: (1) a comparative knowledge of ecosystem functioning provides the fundamentals of geography of ecosystems, and (2) the constant, repeatable evaluation of a given ecosystem function provides a basis for its rational management.