Cyanidation of mercury-rich tailings in artisanal and small-scale gold mining: identifying strategies to manage environmental risks in Southern Ecuador

In many countries, such as Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Indonesia, Venezuela and Zimbabwe, amalgamated tailings are leached with cyanide to recover remaining gold. This paper describes a recently completed study conducted at seven gold processing centers in Portovelo-Zaruma, Southern Ecuador, which involved consultation with local miners. The objective of the study was to understand the behaviour of mercury (with a focus on mercury loss) in artisanal gold mining operations through the evaluation of two cyanidation processes (Merrill-Crowe and Carbon-in-pulp), using a participatory approach. In order to assess the kinetics of mercury dissolution in cyanide, a bottle roll test was conducted in the laboratory. In the Merrill-Crowe cyanidation process, an average of 24.2% of metallic mercury was determined to be trapped at the bottom of the agitation tanks; 33.1% of mercury is lost in association with solid material and 11.7% is lost in solution. Approximately 31.0% of mercury in solution is sent to the zinc precipitation cells from which 27.8% is precipitated on the zinc shavings, with 3.23% remaining in solution. The mercury precipitated on to the zinc is lost to the atmosphere when the shavings are burned at 900 °C. In the Carbon-in-pulp (CIP) leaching system, 11.2% of the mercury is lost with the solid tailings; 31.6% of the mercury is associated with fine particles in suspension and 50.8% is likely dissolved. About 2.68% is trapped at the bottom of the tank and 3.72% is absorbed by the activated carbon. The bottle roll test revealed that mercury dissolution is directly proportional to cyanide concentration. At 10 g/ton of cyanide, approximately 42% of mercury was leached, whereas all gold was solubilized. During this study, miners recognized the risk associated with the cyanidation of mercury-rich tailings, and were aware of how much mercury is discharged to local streams and to the atmosphere. The active participation of miners in this study has led to the strengthening of their knowledge and awareness of mercury contamination, and has enhanced their understanding of the nature of the problem, as well as the weaknesses and strengths of the system they operate.     

Mill leaching: a viable substitute for mercury amalgamation in the artisanal gold mining sector?

Artisanal small-scale gold miners (ASM) occasionally employ whole ore amalgamation by adding mercury into ball mills to recover gold. In this process, 25–30% of the mercury added is lost to the environment. It is also inefficient less than 30% of gold is recovered. Amalgamation, followed by cyanidation, has been observed at many artisanal mining sites. This combination poses additional environmental and health consequences. Tests with ore samples from Talawaan, North Sulawesi, Indonesia indicate the possibility of replacing mercury by cyanidation in the ball mill, reaching gold extraction of 93% in 6 h of leaching. The gold in the Indonesian ore sample is fine and less than 8% of gold recovery was obtained with gravity concentration of the ore ground 80% below 0.25 mm, which is a reasonably fine grain size for artisanal gold operations. Replacing mercury addition with cyanidation in ball mills was implemented in one artisanal gold mining operation in Portovelo, Ecuador, achieving 95% of gold extraction in 8 h of mill leaching. This technique demonstrated a drastic improvement in gold recovery. It was found to be a simple, inexpensive technique well accepted by local miners. The results from laboratory and field tests are promising; however a thorough investigation into the socio-economic and environmental aspects of this presented alternative must be conducted prior to introduction.     

Strategies for reducing the environmental impact of reprocessing mercury-contaminated tailings in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining sector: insights from Tapajos River Basin,Brazil

Worldwide, the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) are extensive. Annual losses from mercury, which is used to amalgamate gold, are in the range of 1000 tonnes, and at advanced sites, there is the additional threat of cyanide contamination.Recent developments in The Brazilian Amazon, an area populated by 200,000 small-scale gold miners, have the potential to reduce these impacts considerably. In the locality of Garimpo Ouro Roxo, miners are presently using amalgamation and cyanidation in vat-leaching. Each cycle typically recovers 50% of the gold and lasts 20 days (per tank), consuming around 3300 kg NaCN/month. A new process has been developed and implemented in a pilot plant in this area, involving gravity concentration followed by cyanidation in a ball mill. Concentrate leaching is conducted with a PVC capsule filled with activated carbon inserted in the cyanide solution in the mill. The cycle takes less than 24 h and recovers up to 98% of the gold in the concentrate. The main advantages of wide adoption of this method, apart from a reduced gold recovery cycle and improved recovery, include possible phase out of amalgamation altogether, and marked reductions in cyanide consumption (from current 22,000 kg–980 kg annually).     

Mercury-free gold mining technologies: possibilities for adoption in the Guianas

The rudimentary nature of small-scale gold mining activities often generates a legacy of extensive degradation and deplorable social conditions, both during and after activities have ceased. Small-scale mining usually involves the extraction of secondary gold from placer deposits (alluvial, colluvial or elluvial), which can be liberated and treated using gravity methods. In the Guianas, the most popular form of small-scale gold mining is referred to as “land dredging”, a combination of hydraulicking and suction dredging. This method requires application of large volumes of water for both mining and mineral processing; in most cases, there are no containment structures for the waste tailings generated. Mercury, a dangerous pollutant, is the preferred method employed by small-scale miners for gold recovery. Gold extraction using mercury is comprised of the following four stages: (1) amalgamation, (2) separation of amalgamation, (3) removal of excess mercury, and (4) burning of the remaining amalgam to produce a gold sponge. Mercury can be released into the environment at each stage, which makes the promotion of mercury-free alternatives imperative.Technical alternatives for small-scale gold mining, however, must be thoroughly evaluated, pre-tested, modified accordingly and successfully transferred. Moreover, technology must be inexpensive, relatively simple and easy to adapt, while allowing a rapid rate of return. WWF-Guianas is working with the regulatory agencies and other relevant stakeholders of the Guianas to reduce the environmental footprints caused by small-scale mining. The major aspects of this program are to develop the capacity and regulatory mechanisms within the local government, to promote mercury-free technology, and monitor mercury in the environment. This paper reviews the alternative technologies being investigated by the WWF-Guianas for use in the small-scale gold mining industry.     

Origin and consumption of mercury in small-scale gold mining

Mercury (Hg) is used by small-scale gold miners in more than 50 developing countries, where the accompanied releases affect human health and the environment. The objectives of this paper are to summarize present use of Hg in artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) worldwide, reveal the origin of part of the Hg used by the gold miners, and propose appropriate actions to reduce the resulting Hg emissions. Significant releases of mercury are associated with inefficient amalgamation techniques. Releases are estimated to range from 800 to 1000 tonne/annum. Of this total, approximately 200–250 tonne of Hg are released in China, 100–150 tonne in Indonesia, and 10–30 tonne each in Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Peru, Philippines, Venezuela and Zimbabwe. Mercury usually enters these countries legally – typically imported from countries in the European Union – although in some cases and in some years (e.g., Indonesia, Venezuela, etc.), the reported imports of Hg are far below estimated consumption. Meanwhile, the EU, while gradually replacing Hg products and processes with more environmentally benign alternatives, paradoxically continues to produce virgin Hg at government-owned mines, further exacerbating a general global oversupply of Hg – evident from its historically low market price. Political leadership is needed to avoid the transfer of excess Hg, and related health and environmental risks from the EU to third countries. Otherwise, the present situation will continue or even worsen, with no oversight or control of the global Hg trade in which the transfer of excess EU Hg to artisanal miners is favoured by low Hg prices relative to gold prices.     

Mercury consumption and contamination of environment in gold mining in China

1　ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＴｈｅｇｏｌｄｉｎｄｕｓｔｒｙｉｎＣｈｉｎａｇｒｏｗｓｕｐｑｕｉｃｋｌｙｗｉｔｈｔｈｅｇｒｏｗｔｈｒａｔｅｏｆａｂｏｕｔ 10 %ｓｉｎｃｅ 90’ｓ.Ｉｎ 1995,ｔｈｅｐｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎｏｆｇｏｌｄｗａｓｏｖｅｒ10 0ｔｏｎｓ/ａ,ａｎｄｉｎ 1996ｒｅａｃｈｅｄ 12 0ｔｏｎｓ/ａ .Ｉｔｉｓｒａｎｋｅｄｓｉｘｔｈｉｎｔｈｅｗｏｒｌｄ(Ｃｈａｎｇ ,1995) .Ｔｈｅｉｒｍａｉｎｐｒｏｃｅｄｕｒｅｓｏｆｇｏｌｄｅｘｔｒａｃｔｉｏｎａｒｅ :(1)ｃｙａｎｉｚａｔｉｏｎｉｎｔｏｔａｌｏｒｅ ｃａｒｂｏ…     

Reducing mercury pollution from artisanal gold mining in Munhena,Mozambique

Artisanal small-scale mining (ASM) is responsible for over 90% of gold production in Mozambique. In 2005, a 15-day pilot training project was held in the village of Munhena, a gold mining community. This intervention aimed at raising awareness related to the environmental and health impacts of mercury amalgamation and introduced alternative practices to reduce mercury release and exposure. In 2007, a 9-day evaluation of the pilot campaign was accomplished and knowledge in regards to mining methods, and the ASM government–community operating relations in Munhena were updated. Miners in Munhena are organized in an association of over 3000 members, work on a 25 year Government granted 143 ha concession and generate a substantial income (producing over 5 kg of gold per month). There remain, however, serious barriers towards sustainable community development. ASM associated environmental and health costs are high, as mercury continues to be used and lost to the environment, and cyanide will be introduced soon. The Government of Mozambique has laid the foundation for supporting this sector; however, resources are limited, and thus restrict ability to fully address these issues. Importantly, malaria and HIV/AIDS are not diagnosed and/or treated effectively within the community, and basic necessities are absent. This paper concludes with recommendations focused on enhancing the ASM sector in Mozambique, and overcoming barriers to sustainability in the community of Munhena.     

Reagent elution combined with positive pressure filtration: A zero-discharge method for cyanide tailings remediation

At present, the cyanide gold extraction process is still the main technology for gold production. Generated cyanide tailings containing highly toxic substances exhibit potential environmental risks. These tailings are in urgent need of purification treatment, especially after being classified as hazardous waste. In this study, the impacts of elution methods, operating time, tailings/water ratios, reagent types on the elution rates of cyanide were investigated. Furthermore, the composite elution ...     

氰化尾渣资源化应用的清洁生产技术研究

以鑫汇金矿的氰化尾渣为研究对象,利用工艺矿物学研究方法,分别进行光谱分析、物相分析和化学分析. 氰化尾渣中w(Pb)和w(Zn)较高,分别达到12.45%和14.00%. 方铅矿和闪锌矿为可回收的铅锌矿物,2种矿粒度主要分布于10～43 μm. 针对方铅矿、闪锌矿的浮选特点,对矿浆进行预处理,并利用新型浮选技术和药剂制度,以提高选矿生产技术指标. 其中铅锌混合精矿中w(Pb)和w(Zn)分别为24.41%和24.55%,锌精矿中w(Zn)为46.63%. 在选矿废水中加入氧化剂,可使其净化后循环利用,由此可节约新鲜水380 m3/d;尾矿可作为制酸原料和水泥原料.      

A matter of approach: the retort's potential to reduce mercury consumption within small-scale gold mining settlements in Tanzania

The mercury-based gold extraction processes prevalent within small-scale mining are both efficient and harmful. While ensuring relatively high levels of gold recovery, they cause environmental and health problems for people living within mining settlements. This mercury consumption can be minimized by using a simple mercury recycling device known as a retort. While mining legislation in Tanzania dictates the use of retorts for gold recovery, virtually no miners use them, indicating the inadequacy of previous introduction attempts. During action research, retorts were introduced in two mining settlements through a thorough and participatory approach. Twenty miners were given retorts and their attitudes and receptiveness to them were studied. Of the recipients, 18 used the retorts over a period of five months, recycling 10 kilos of mercury. Less mercury was spilled into the environment and miners saved money normally spent on purchasing mercury. The findings have implications for the strategies of development interventions targeting mercury-instigated problems within small-scale gold mining.     

城市管道煤气生产中汞的分布特征

采用二次金汞齐 -冷原子吸收光谱法对贵阳市城市民用管道煤气中汞含量进行了测定。对煤气生产中使用的洗精煤及生产过程中产生的化学产品焦碳、煤焦油、焦炉煤气脱硫洗涤物硫浆中汞含量和分布进行了初步研究。管道煤气中汞的含量低于方法检测限 0 .0 5ng/m3,低于贵阳市大气中汞含量。在原煤转化为城市管道煤气过程中 ,原煤的洗选过程脱除了 70 %的汞 ;焦碳中汞含量占洗精煤汞含量的 1 1 .4 % ;焦油中汞含量占洗精煤中汞的 1 2 .6 % ;硫浆的生成过程脱除了煤气生产用洗精煤中 50 %的汞。     

Clean artisanal gold mining: a utopian approach?

Artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) provides an important source of livelihood for rural communities throughout the world. These activities are frequently accompanied by extensive environmental degradation and deplorable socio-economic conditions, both during operations and well after mining activities have ceased. As gold is easily sold and not influenced by the instability of local governments, it is the main mineral extracted by artisanal miners. Mercury (Hg) amalgamation is the preferred gold recovery method employed by artisanal gold miners and its misuse can result in serious health hazards for miners involved in gold extraction, as well as for surrounding community inhabitants, who may be exposed to mercury via the food chain. The rudimentary techniques characteristic of ASM result in a number of occupational hazards, other although most risks are primarily attributed to machinery accidents and ground failure, such as landslides and shaft collapses.Several technologies and methods commonly utilized by large-scale mining operations can be downsized to smaller scale operations. However, the likelihood that miners will adopt these large-scale methods, or those developed specifically for ASM, depends upon some key factors. For an artisanal miner, these factors include: (1) increased or comparable simplicity, (2) quick recovery of the economic mineral, and (3) demonstrated financial gain. Other practical aspects, such as the availability of materials (chemicals, steel rods, piping, generators, etc), capital and operating cost requirements and access to technical support, also influence acceptance of new techniques.This article will review four inter-related areas: first, the limitations and benefits, for ASM, of a number of specific technologies; second, the role of Processing Centers in education, information dissemination and provision of “clean” services; third, benefits and challenges associated with formalization of ASM activities; and fourth, the contribution of ASM to the development of sustainability of communities, primarily through diversification of livelihoods. The appropriate application of technologies, particularly given the diversity of ASM communities around the world, will also be explored.     

汞的环境地球化学研究进展

介绍了目前对环境样品中总汞及其各形态未的分析方法以及大气和水生生态系统中汞的研究进展，并指出，燃煤、汞齐法采金和人造水库等引起的环境汞污染问题以及汞在热带地区水生生态系统中的迁移转化规律等是目前的研究热点。     

北京市平谷区金矿区周边土壤砷、汞赋存形态特征及生态风险评价

以北京市平谷区金矿区周边土壤为研究对象,采集40个表层（0~20 cm）土壤样品,测定土壤中As、Hg总量及其各赋存形态含量,并采用基于重金属形态的次生相原生相分布比值法（ratio of secondary phase to primary phase,RSP）和风险评价编码法（risk assessment code,RAC）对土壤中As、Hg污染程度及生态风险进行评价。结果表明:各采样区土壤中As、Hg总量均超出北京市土壤背景值,分别超出3.94~13.24,11~41.33倍;土壤中As、Hg主要以残渣态存在,除残渣态外,As主要以铁锰氧化态存在,开采沟和尾矿库土壤中Hg主要以碳酸盐结合态存在,开采沟下游和尾矿库外土壤中Hg则主要以强有机态存在;污染程度和生态风险评价结果显示,开采沟及下游土壤As、Hg污染程度较低,研究区土壤中As、Hg整体表现较低风险,在开采沟、YZ尾矿库和JHH尾矿库存在Hg的高风险和极高风险点位,应予以重视。研究结果为治理金矿区周边土壤As、Hg污染提供参考。     

管道煤气生产中汞的分布

为了解城市管道煤气生产中可能存在的汞污染,对贵阳市管道煤气及煤气生产所使用的洗精煤、煤气生产过程中产生的化学产品焦碳、焦油及焦炉煤气脱硫洗涤物硫浆中汞的含量和分布进行了研究。研究发现,管道煤气中汞的含量低于二次金汞齐-冷原子吸收光谱法检测限0.05ng/m3,较贵阳市城区大气汞的含量还低。在原煤转化为城市管道煤气过程中,煤中的汞在煤气生产的各个环节都有不同程度的脱除:其中原煤的洗选过程是最主要的脱汞过程,约75%左右的汞在该过程中被脱除;焦碳中汞含量占洗精煤汞含量的14.1%;煤焦油中汞含量占洗精煤中汞的15.5%;硫浆的生成过程则脱除了煤气生产用洗精煤中51%的汞。     

铀矿石堆浸尾渣的充填处置的研究

在此描述了铀矿石堆浸尾渣的充填处置的工艺和结果。在水力充填过程中加入渣量的 1%的石灰 充填滤水碱性循环工艺,可使它们均匀混合,以中和渣中的余酸,满足充填要求,减少铀矿石堆浸尾渣对环境造成的影响     

Exposure of aboriginal people to methylmercury due to gold mining in the Amazon, Brazil

ＩｎｔｒｏｄｕｃｔｉｏｎＳｉｎｃｅｔｈｅｅａｒｌｙ 1980’ｓ,ｒａｐｉｄｉｎｃｒｅａｓｅｓｉｎｇｏｌｄｍｉｎｉｎｇａｃｔｉｖｉｔｉｅｓｕｓｉｎｇｍｅｒｃｕｒｙａｍａｌｇａｍａｔｉｏｎｔｅｃｈｎｉｑｕｅｉｎｍａｎｙｄｅｖｅｌｏｐｉｎｇｃｏｕｎｔｒｉｅｓｈａｓｂｅｅｎｏｎｅｏｆｔｈｅｍａｉｎｓｏｕｒｃｅｓｏｆｍｅｒｃｕｒｙｐｏｌｌｕｔｉｏｎ ,ｐａｒｔｉｃｕｌａｒｌｙｉｎｔｈｅＡｍａｚｏｎａｎｄｏｔｈｅｒｔｒｏｐｉｃａｌｒｅｇｉｏｎｓ(Ｍａｌｍ ,1990 ;Ｒａｍｅｌ,1996;Ｉｋｉｎｇｕｒａ,1996;Ｌａｃｅｒｄａ,…     

两次金汞齐-冷原子荧光光谱法测定大气中的痕量气态总汞

建立了两次金汞齐-冷原子荧光光谱法(CVAFS)测定大气中痕量气态总汞(TGM)的方法。研究表明:本方法的绝对检出限为2 pg;当以0.2~0.4 L·min-1 采样速度,采集12~48 h时,采样效率> 99%,精密度为9.63%;样品经2次循环加热分析,热解吸效率> 99%。这种分析方法还可以运用到其他环境样品痕量汞的测定。     

Policies and regulations for Brazil’s artisanal gold mining sector: analysis and recommendations

In Brazil, artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) produces in the range of 6 tonnes of gold (Au) per annum, and employs approximately 200,000 people. Most of this mining activity is in the Amazon region, where miners have been extracting gold for more than 40 years. In the Tapajos River Basin, assessments indicate that around 99% of miners operate without the environmental and mining permits required by law. This is a result of a combination of unrealistic or lack of proper policies and regulations, lack of political will, lack of infra-structure to enforce the existing regulations and lack of incentives to miners to comply with legal requirements.In this article, we analyze a group of 20 laws, decrees and resolutions in Brazil, focusing on how idiosyncrasies in these regulations reveal gaps between policy and reality in ASGM areas. Artisanal miners operate in vast and remote areas and the government lacks the resources (personnel, vehicles, information and materials) to enforce the laws. Our analysis emphasizes the need for creating new government commitments and identifying priority areas where government agents can focus their efforts.There is no single solution for the environmental, health, technical and socio-economic problems associated with ASGM. However, a realistic approach should consider improving the level of education of miners, creating government programs to provide technical assistance in the field, simplifying administrative procedures and ensuring adequate measures for enforcement.     

碱式氯化法处理金矿含氰废水试验研究

应用碱式氯化法处理金矿含氯废水的试验研究结果表明，漂白粉法对易释放氰化物去除率为１００％，废水经处理后易释放氰化物可达排放标准，漂白粉用量为２－４ｋｇ／ｔ废水。