Behavioral frequency: Relationship between conditioning and extinction

Operant conditioning data pertaining to bar pressing in rats show that (1) different schedules of reinforcement during training lead to differential behavior during extinction as measured by number of responses, but not as measured by number of response units and (2) animals show a response frequency/unit of time which is directly proportional to the response frequency/unit of time acquired during training.     

Bumblebees exhibit the memory spacing effect

Associative learning is key to how bees recognize and return to rewarding floral resources. It thus plays a major role in pollinator floral constancy and plant gene flow. Honeybees are the primary model for pollinator associative learning, but bumblebees play an important ecological role in a wider range of habitats, and their associative learning abilities are less well understood. We assayed learning with the proboscis extension reflex (PER), using a novel method for restraining bees (capsules) designed to improve bumblebee learning. We present the first results demonstrating that bumblebees exhibit the memory spacing effect. They improve their associative learning of odor and nectar reward by exhibiting increased memory acquisition, a component of long-term memory formation, when the time interval between rewarding trials is increased. Bombus impatiens forager memory acquisition (average discrimination index values) improved by 129% and 65% at inter-trial intervals (ITI) of 5 and 3 min, respectively, as compared to an ITI of 1 min. Memory acquisition rate also increased with increasing ITI. Encapsulation significantly increases olfactory memory acquisition. Ten times more foragers exhibited at least one PER response during training in capsules as compared to traditional PER harnesses. Thus, a novel conditioning assay, encapsulation, enabled us to improve bumblebee-learning acquisition and demonstrate that spaced learning results in better memory consolidation. Such spaced learning likely plays a role in forming long-term memories of rewarding floral resources.     

Rapid matching in Drosophila place learning

The level of conditioned behavior in animals is proportional to the intensity, amount, frequency, or probability of reinforcement. Interestingly, this matching can be dynamic, with performance levels following, for example, a switch in the probability of reinforcement with a short delay. We previously found that conditioned performance levels in Drosophila match reinforcement intensity in a place conditioning paradigm. Whether Drosophila can match conditioned behavior to a change in reinforcement intensity was an open question. In this study, we found that both conditioned behavior and memory levels match reinforcement intensity after a switch, and this rapid matching occurs within 2 min. Thus, fruit flies can dynamically match conditioned behavior and memory levels to a change in reinforcement intensity.     

邻苯二甲酸二异癸酯联合甲醛致小鼠学习记忆障碍的氧化损伤机制研究

为了探究邻苯二甲酸二异癸酯(Diisodecyl Phthalate,DIDP)、甲醛(Formaldehyde,FA)二者联合暴露致小鼠学习记忆障碍的氧化损伤机制,以及维生素E(Vitamin E,Vit E)对二者所致氧化损伤的保护作用,将80只SPF级3周龄雄性KM小鼠随机平均分为8组:(A)阴性对照组;(B)0.15 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)DIDP组;(C)1.5 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)DIDP组;(D)15 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)DIDP组;(E)150 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)DIDP组;(F) 1 mg·m~(-3)FA组;(G)1 mg·m~(-3)FA+15 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)DIDP组;(H)1 mg·m~(-3)FA+15 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)DIDP+100 mg·kg~(-1)·d~(-1)Vit E组.连续染毒3周.于染毒第13 d开始进行水迷宫实验,末次给药后24 h内取小鼠脑组织制作切片和组织匀浆,检测脑组织匀浆中活性氧(ROS)、还原型谷胱甘肽(GSH)、丙二醛(MDA)、8-羟基脱氧鸟苷(8-OHdG)的含量.结果表明,(A)组～(E)组小鼠脑海马组织氧化损伤逐渐加重,小鼠学习记忆能力逐渐下降;(G)组较(F)组小鼠脑海马组织氧化损伤加重,小鼠学习记忆能力下降;(H)组较(G)组小鼠脑海马组织氧化损伤减轻,小鼠学习记忆能力有所提高.研究显示,DIDP可通过氧化应激作用,引起脑海马组织损伤,导致小鼠学习记忆能力下降.     

A large Cretaceous theropod from Patagonia, Argentina, and the evolution of carcharodontosaurids

The Cretaceous Carcharodontosauridae is the latest clade of carnosaurs, including the largest predatory dinosaurs yet recorded. Albeit spectacular for their size, the skeletal anatomy of these theropods remains poorly-known, and their diversity was until recently restricted to two Cenomanian species: the highly derived Giganotosaurus carolinii, from southern South America, and the incompletely known Carcharodontosaurus saharicus, from northern Africa. Here we describe an older and basal member of the group, Tyrannotitan chubutensis gen. et sp. nov., from Aptian strata of Patagonia, Argentina. The new taxon gives new insights into the systematics and evolution of carcharodontosaurids and offers a better understanding of the evolution of Southern theropod faunas. We suggest that carcharodontosaurids radiated in Gondwana sharing with spinosaurids the role of top-predators until their extinction in Cenomanian–Turonian times. During this interval, the diplodocoid sauropods and giant titanosaurians went extinct (probably as part of a global-scale crisis), and the smaller abelisaurid theropods took dominance, reigning until the end of the Cretaceous. Electronic Supplementary Material is available.Electronic Supplementary Information  Supplementary material is available for this article at     

On wear resistance of tool steel

Maintaining a reasonably low cutting tool wear when producing forming tools is a general challenge in the development of new forming tool materials. The tool life of a hot forming tool steel (H13) has been significantly improved by reducing its Si-content from 1.0 to 0.06 wt.%. However, this modified H13 (MH13) also displays a reduced cutting tool life due to higher cutting forces and a stronger tendency to form built up layers (BUE) on the cutting edge. This paper explains why.Gleeble tests of MH13 revealed a significantly higher flow stress in the 820–900 °C temperature interval in MH13 compared to H13. Thermo-Calc simulations showed that when reducing the Si-content from 1.0 to 0.06 wt.% the initial temperature for ferrite-to-austenite transformation (A1) was reduced from 900 °C to 820 °C. Knowing that austenite has totally different mechanical and thermal properties than ferrite, the difference in A1 between the two steels explains the higher cutting forces and higher tendency for BUE-formation. The conclusion is that the difference in machinability between H13 and MH13 is primarily related to their difference in A1.An attempt was also made to find a new tool material composition that can combine the wear resistance of MH13 and the good machinability of H13. Thermo-Calc simulations were performed with slightly modified alloying content without changing its properties as a good forming tool material, with the aim to increase A1. For instance, reducing the Mn content from 0.5 to 0.05 wt.% proved to increase A1 from 820 to 850 °C.     

Prospects of utilization of sugar beet carbohydrates for biological hydrogen production in the EU

Hydrogen can be produced through dark anaerobic fermentation using carbohydrate-rich biomass, and through photofermentation using the organic acids produced from dark fermentation. Sugar beet is an ideal energy crop for fermentative production of hydrogen in the EU due to its environmental profile and its potential availability in the area. In this work, various aspects of cultivating sugar beet in the EU for biohydrogen were highlighted, with special focus on The Netherlands and Greece. Moreover, fermentation of sugar beet juice with Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus at sucrose concentration 10 g/l was performed, and was found comparable to the fermentation on pure sucrose except that the hydrogen production was 10% higher on sugar beet juice. A conservative estimate of the annual hydrogen potential in the EU was made (300 × 10⁶ kg hydrogen), considering the utilization of sugar beet pulp in hydrogen production.     

Daytime light intensity affects seasonal timing via changes in the nocturnal melatonin levels

Daytime light intensity can affect the photoperiodic regulation of the reproductive cycle in birds. The actual way by which light intensity information is transduced is, however, unknown. We postulate that transduction of the light intensity information is mediated by changes in the pattern of melatonin secretion. This study, therefore, investigated the effects of high and low daytime light intensities on the daily melatonin rhythm of Afro-tropical stonechats (Saxicola torquata axillaris) in which seasonal changes in daytime light intensity act as a zeitgeber of the circannual rhythms controlling annual reproduction and molt. Stonechats were subjected to light conditions simulated as closely as possible to native conditions near the equator. Photoperiod was held constant at 12.25 h of light and 11.75 h of darkness per day. At intervals of 2.5 to 3.5 weeks, daytime light intensity was changed from bright (12,000 lux at one and 2,000 lux at the other perch) to dim (1,600 lux at one and 250 lux at the other perch) and back to the original bright light. Daily plasma melatonin profiles showed that they were linked with changes in daytime light intensity: Nighttime peak and total nocturnal levels were altered when transitions between light conditions were made, and these changes were significant when light intensity was changed from dim to bright. We suggest that daytime light intensity could affect seasonal timing via changes in melatonin profiles. Professor Dr. E. Gwinner died on 07 September 2004.     

Olfactory host finding, intermediate memory and its potential ecological adaptation in Nasonia vitripennis

Associative learning of host-associated chemical cues was studied in Nasonia vitripennis, a parasitoid of fly pupae in nests of hole-nesting birds. When females encountered a fly pupa and performed one sequence of host recognition behaviour including drilling the ovipositor into the host in the presence of the artificial odour furfurylheptanoate (FFH), they were afterwards arrested by FFH in olfactometer experiments. The response vanished after 4 days and could be blocked after 3 days by feeding wasps with ethacrynic acid prior and after the training. This indicates the formation of an intermediate form of memory by one host experience in N. vitripennis. Interestingly, the trained wasps avoided odours that were not present during the host encounter, although naive wasps did not react to these odours. This unique behaviour probably causes wasps to focus during host searching on those chemical cues they have experienced in the host environment. Studies in nests of hole-nesting birds revealed that about 30% of all nests contained only one fly pupa, and laboratory studies showed that N. vitripennis females are able to parasitise around 100 fly pupae in their life. It is discussed that under these conditions, the formation of a non-permanent intermediate memory for host-associated odours after one host encounter is adaptive to avoid costs involved with formation and maintenance of memory for misleading cues. The demonstration of associative olfactory learning in N. vitripennis, the first parasitoid species with sequenced genome, opens the gate to study molecular mechanisms of memory formation and its ecological adaptation in parasitoids.     

Pre-pupation behaviour of the aphid parasitoid <Emphasis Type="Italic">Aphidius ervi</Emphasis> (Haliday) and its consequences for pre-imaginal learning

Olfactory learning may occur at different stages of insect ontogeny. In parasitoid wasps, it has been mostly shown at adult emergence, whilst it remains controversial at pre-imaginal stages. We followed larval growth of the parasitoid wasp, Aphidius ervi Haliday, inside the host aphid, Acyrthosiphom pisum Harris, and characterised in detail the behaviour of third instar larvae. We found that just before cocoon spinning begins, the third instar larva bites a hole through the ventral side of the mummified aphid exoskeleton. We then evaluated whether this period of exposure to the external environment represented a sensitive stage for olfactory learning. In our first experiment, the third instar larvae were allowed to spin their cocoon on the host plant (Vicia faba L.) surface or on a plastic plate covering the portion of the host plant exposed to the ventral opening. Recently emerged adults of the first group showed a preference for plant volatiles in a glass Y-olfactometer, whereas no preference was found in adults of the second group. In a second experiment, during the period in which the aphid carcass remains open or is being sealed by cocoon spinning, third instar larvae were exposed for 24 h to either vanilla odours or water vapours as control. In this experiment, half of the parasitoid larvae were later excised from the mummy to avoid further exposure to vanilla. Adult parasitoids exposed to vanilla during the larval ventral opening of the mummy showed a significant preference for vanilla odours in the olfactometer, regardless of excision from the mummy. The larval behaviour described and the results of the manipulations performed are discussed as evidences for the acquisition of olfactory memory during the larval stage and its persistence through metamorphosis.     

邻苯二甲酸二丁酯影响阿尔茨海默病大鼠学习记忆能力的分子机制研究

为探究邻苯二甲酸二丁酯（DBP）影响阿尔茨海默病（AD）大鼠学习记忆能力的分子机制,将56只SPF级5~6周龄雌性Wistar大鼠随机平均分为7组：阴性对照组、0.25 mg·kg^-1·d^-1 DBP组、2.5 mg·kg^-1·d^-1 DBP组、25 mg·kg^-1·d^-1 DBP组、250 mg·kg^-1·d^-1 DBP组、AD模型组和AD+25 mg·kg^-1·d^-1 DBP组.连续灌胃处理28 d,观察Morris水迷宫结果,检测脑海马组织中活性氧（ROS）、还原型谷胱甘肽（GSH）、丙二醛（MDA）、8-羟基脱氧鸟苷（8-OHdG）的含量;采用实时荧光定量PCR （qPCR）检测Bcl-2、Bax和Caspase-3 mRNA的转录水平;通过免疫印迹试验（Western blot）检测Bcl-2、Bax和Caspase-3的蛋白表达水平.结果表明,与阴性对照组相比,不同染毒组、DBP组大鼠的学习记忆能力下降,氧化应激水平上升,且随DBP染毒浓度升高而加剧（p<0.05,p<0.01）;AD+25 mg·kg^-1·d^-1 DBP组较AD模型组大鼠的学习记忆能力损伤加剧,氧化应激水平和Bcl-2/Bax/Caspase-3信号通路上调,差异具有统计学意义（p<0.05）.由此推测,DBP可通过氧化应激作用,上调Bcl-2/Bax/Caspase-3信号通路,加剧AD大鼠海马组织的损伤,导致学习记忆能力下降.本文通过DBP影响AD大鼠学习记忆能力的分子机制研究,揭示了氧化应激对凋亡信号通路的作用,并为进一步研究DBP的毒性提供了理论和数据依据.     

Yellowjackets use nest-based cues to differentially exploit higher-quality resources

While foraging, social insects encounter a dynamic array of food resources of varying quality and profitability. Because food acquisition influences colony growth and fitness, natural selection can be expected to favor colonies that allocate their overall foraging effort so as to maximize their intake of high-quality nutrients. Social wasps lack recruitment communication, but previous studies of vespine wasps have shown that olfactory cues influence foraging decisions. Odors associated with food brought into the nest by successful foragers prompt naive foragers to leave the nest and search for the source of those odors. Left unanswered, however, is the question of whether naive foragers take food quality into account in making their decisions about whether or not to search. In this study, two different concentrations of sucrose solutions, scented differently, were inserted directly into each of three Vespula germanica nests. At a feeder away from the nest, arriving foragers were given a choice between two 1.5 M sucrose solutions with the same scents as those in the nest. We show that wasps chose higher-quality resources in the field using information in the form of intranidal food-associated odor cues. By this simple mechanism, the colony can bias the allocation of its foraging effort toward higher-quality resources in the environment.     

A new clade of archaic large-bodied predatory dinosaurs (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) that survived to the latest Mesozoic

Non-avian theropod dinosaurs attained large body sizes, monopolising terrestrial apex predator niches in the Jurassic–Cretaceous. From the Middle Jurassic onwards, Allosauroidea and Megalosauroidea comprised almost all large-bodied predators for 85 million years. Despite their enormous success, however, they are usually considered absent from terminal Cretaceous ecosystems, replaced by tyrannosaurids and abelisaurids. We demonstrate that the problematic allosauroids Aerosteon, Australovenator, Fukuiraptor and Neovenator form a previously unrecognised but ecologically diverse and globally distributed clade (Neovenatoridae, new clade) with the hitherto enigmatic theropods Chilantaisaurus, Megaraptor and the Maastrichtian Orkoraptor. This refutes the notion that allosauroid extinction pre-dated the end of the Mesozoic. Neovenatoridae includes a derived group (Megaraptora, new clade) that developed long, raptorial forelimbs, cursorial hind limbs, appendicular pneumaticity and small size, features acquired convergently in bird-line theropods. Neovenatorids thus occupied a 14-fold adult size range from 175 kg (Fukuiraptor) to approximately 2,500 kg (Chilantaisaurus). Recognition of this major allosauroid radiation has implications for Gondwanan paleobiogeography: The distribution of early Cretaceous allosauroids does not strongly support the vicariant hypothesis of southern dinosaur evolution or any particular continental breakup sequence or dispersal scenario. Instead, clades were nearly cosmopolitan in their early history, and later distributions are explained by sampling failure or local extinction.     

水平电场作用下活性污泥的脱水研究

通过考察水平电场作用下活性污泥的性质（pH、电导率）、絮凝调理及电场因素（电压大小、电场应用方式、极板间距）对污泥电脱水效果的影响,确定了水平电场下污泥电脱水的最佳条件.结果表明,对于本研究的活性污泥,以水平电场为驱动力进行脱水,在原始pH（6.93）、电导率=1.46 mS·cm-1的条件下污泥电脱水效果最好;投加阳离子型聚丙烯酰胺（CPAM）可以使污泥脱水率提高30%～40%,缩短达到相同电脱水效果的时间,但对电脱水率的提高不显著.水平电场施加60 min,絮凝调理后污泥的电脱水率可达83.12%,而对应的原始污泥则需要120 min才能达到75.31%的电脱水效果.延迟电场应用对污泥电脱水效果产生抑制作用.此外,本研究确定的最佳脱水条件为：CPAM投药量为9 g.kg-1,电场强度为600V·m-1,极板间距为40 mm,电场应用时间为60 min.在上述最佳条件下对活性污泥进行电脱水,其含水率从99.30%降至95.15%,脱水率可达85.33%.     

磁性壳聚糖改善污泥脱水性能的研究

采用天然壳聚糖为原料,戊二醛为交联剂,Fe₃O₄为磁核制备磁性壳聚糖,以改善污泥脱水性能.考察了磁性壳聚糖投加量、污泥pH值、调理时间对磁性壳聚糖改善污泥脱水性能的影响,探讨了磁性壳聚糖的作用机理,并通过响应面法研究了磁性壳聚糖和CPAM复配处理污泥对污泥脱水性能的影响.结果表明,保持污泥pH值为6.8时,经20mg/L的磁性壳聚糖调理30min后,污泥比阻（SRF）和含水率（MC）分别由原污泥的13.8×10¹²m/kg和98.7%降低至4.8×10¹²m/kg和75.5%,说明磁性壳聚糖明显改善了污泥脱水性能.响应面实验所拟合的响应值为污泥SRF的二次模型P（Prob>F）<0.05、R²=0.98>0.90,响应值为污泥MC的二次模型P（Prob>F）<0.05、R²=0.95>0.90,表明模型显著,且实验设定变量之间的相关性较好.根据响应值的分布情况,确定污泥脱水的最佳条件为磁性壳聚糖18mg/L、CPAM26mg/L、调理时间27min,相应SRF和MC分别为3.3×10¹²m/kg和59.5%,污泥脱水效果较单独采用磁性壳聚糖或CPAM时得到了明显的提高.     

Neonatal outcomes of congenital diaphragmatic hernia in full term versus early term deliveries: A systematic review and meta-analysis

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to review the optimal timing of delivery at term for neonates with prenatally diagnosed congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH). We reviewed the literature up to December 19, 2022 using MEDLINE and the Cochrane Library databases. The inclusion criteria were original articles, comparative studies of CDH neonates delivered at an early term (37–38 weeks of gestation) and at full term (39 weeks of gestation or later), and comparative studies investigating outcomes of CDH neonates. Six studies met the inclusion criteria, including 985 neonates delivered at an early term and 629 delivered at full term. The cumulative rate of survival to discharge showed no significant difference between CDH neonates delivered at an early term (395/515; 76.7%) or at full term (345/467; 73.9%) (risk ratio [RR] 1.01; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.89–1.16; p = 0.85). Furthermore, the number of neonates requiring oxygen therapy at discharge was not significantly different between CDH neonates delivered at an early term (32/370; 8.6%) and at full term (14/154; 9.1%) (RR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.36–2.70; p = 0.99). Therefore, the optimal timing of delivery at term for neonates with CDH remains unclear.     

红色旅游资源地游客国家认同的影响因素与多元路径研究——基于模糊集定性比较分析

红色旅游资源及其开发具有个体和群体意义,是国家认同实现的重要途径。采用多变量交互作用的模糊集定性比较分析方法,以游客国家认同为结果变量,构建社会记忆（人物记忆、环境记忆、时间记忆、空间记忆）、景区形象（吸引物形象、设施环境形象、文创宣传形象）、旅游体验、感知价值为前因变量,探索影响国家认同的前因条件组合与多元路径。研究结果表明：（1）对于单项因素来说,虽然人物记忆的一致性相对较高,但所有单因素都无法构成国家认同的充要条件。（2）9个变量共产生512种条件组合,满足条件的路径组合共11条,总体覆盖率为0.8916,构成了空间环境模式、形象价值模式、历史体验模式和时间综合模式四大类路径模式。（3）人物记忆出现在所有路径组合中,且所有组合同时包含至少一个社会记忆下的其他的二级维度,例如环境、时间或空间记忆。当社会记忆的四个二级维度全部出现时,产生了原始覆盖率最高的路径组合。（4）在原始覆盖率大于20%的6条路径中,都同时包含社会记忆和景区形象中的二级要素;在原始覆盖率小于20%的5条路径中,皆“一定不包含”设施环境形象。本文为红色旅游目的地在新格局下的高质量发展提供了理论参照。     

Comparison of Multiple Passage Integrated Cell Culture-PCR and Cytopathogenic Effects in Cell Culture for the Assessment of Poliovirus Survival in Water

The goal of this study was to determine if a cytopathogenic effects (CPE) cell culture assay and an integrated cell culture PCR (ICC-PCR) assay would yield similar or different results when used to assess virus survival in water. Poliovirus type 1 was added to dechlorinated tapwater and stored at room temperature (22.5–24°C) for a total of 50 days. Samples were assayed at defined time intervals by the most probable number (MPN) method on Buffalo green monkey kidney cells (BGM) by CPE and additionally by ICC-PCR. Monolayers that were CPE negative on first passage were passed onto fresh monolayers of cells for a second and third time if still negative. By CPE assay, second passage was observed to yield a greater titer (2,300 vs. 24,000 MPN/ml) and third passage also resulted in an increased titer. ICC-PCR proved to be a more rapid and sensitive method than conventional cell culture for determining virus inactivation rates in water. Poliovirus survived in tapwater for up to 32 days, as assessed by both third passage ICC-PCR and CPE. There was no statistical difference in the inactivation rates between the two methods. To determine the total number of infectious viruses, these findings indicate the need for performing three cell culture passages or, alternatively, ICC-PCR on first passage.     

Paleoenvironmental conditions in the Spanish Miocene–Pliocene boundary: isotopic analyses of Hipparion dental enamel

Expansion of C₄ grasses during Late Miocene and Early Pliocene constitutes one of the most remarkable biotic events of the Cenozoic era. The Teruel–Alfambra region (northeastern Spain) contains one of the most complete Miocene–Pliocene sequences of mammalian fossil sites in the world. In this study, stable isotope (δ ¹³C and δ ¹⁸O) analyses have been performed on the tooth enamel from the equid Hipparion from 19 localities spanning a time interval from approximately 10.9 to 2.7 Ma. This time range starts with the first appearance of this genus in Spain and ends at its extinction. An increase in δ ¹³C at about 4.2 Ma has been observed, indicative of a shift toward a more open habitat. This shift may be related to a large scale vegetation change which occurred across the Miocene–Pliocene boundary when C₄ grasses expanded. This expansion might in turn be linked to global tectonic events such as the uplift of the Himalaya and/or the closure of the Panama Isthmus. However, other more regional factors may have ultimately enhanced the trend toward more open habitats in the Western Mediterranean Basin. The Messinian Salinity Crisis was a major environmental event that may have been responsible for the isotopic changes seen in the equid Hipparion from the Iberian Peninsula along with an increase in the aridity detected ~4.6 Ma ago in the Sahara. Even though the exact factor triggering the isotopic change observed in the Hipparion enamel remains mostly unknown, this study demonstrates that the global environmental changes detected across the Miocene–Pliocene boundary are also recorded in the realm of the Iberian Peninsula. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Modeling increased demand of energy for air conditioners and consequent CO2 emissions to minimize health risks due to climate change in India

Developing countries situated mostly in latitudes that are projected for the highest climate change impact in the twenty-first century will also have a predictable increase in demand on energy sources. India presents us with a unique opportunity to study this phenomenon in a large developing country. This study finds that climate adaptation policies of India should consider the significance of air conditioners (A/Cs) in mitigation of human vulnerability due to unpredictable weather events such as heat waves. However, the energy demand due to air conditioning usage alone will be in the range of an extra ～750,000 GWh to ～1,350,000 GWh with a 3.7 °C increase in surface temperatures under different population scenarios and increasing incomes by the year 2100. We project that residential A/C usage by 2100 will result in CO₂ emissions of 592 Tg to 1064 Tg. This is significant given that India's total contribution to global CO₂ emissions in 2009 was measured at 1670 Tg and country's residential and commercial electricity consumption in 2007 was estimated at 145,000 GWh.