Soil erosion tolerance and water runoff control: minimum environmental standards

Council Regulations (EC) No 1257/1999 and the EU Soil Thematic Strategy give great importance to soil and land conservation to develop knowledge driven governance for rural development. In the hilly areas of Italy cultivated intensively, and especially in the ones devoted to viticulture, agricultural practices determine high loss of soil with consequent degradation of the soil resource. In addition to it, offsite effects of soil erosion can be unsustainable, due to sediment transfer to the channel network and infrastructures. In order to achieve a sustainable rural development there is a need for tools and instruments to allow European regional administrations, to develop, implement, manage and monitor rural development plans. To counteract the environmental threats intensified by agricultural activity, the environmental functions “soil erosion control” and “water runoff control” were investigated in the Chianti area by using GIS. To determine the EMR (Environmental Minimum Requirements) values for soil erosion the “regeneration” capability of soils was considered, and the value of estimated soil loss was compared with the value of soil reformation. A scenario analysis was also performed to evaluate the effectiveness of the agroenvironmental measure “grass cover” in reducing erosion. The concept of tolerable erosion based on soil productivity and soil reformation rate only is reductive and off-site effects of soil erosion should be also taken into account. For this reason, it was proposed to extend the concept of hydrogeological risk to soil erosion by implementing the notion of soil erosion tolerance (T) with the new concept of environmental risk of soil erosion (ERSE). The new ERSE index takes into account all the in- and off-farm externalities of soil erosion. For this reason, it can be considered an aggregated environmental indicator that enables policy makers to evaluate the impacts of soil erosion by following an holistic approach.     

An introductory note on the environmental economics of the circular economy

This paper provides an introduction to some of the fundamental principles and approaches in environmental economics which are of significance to achieving an integrated sustainability science. The concept of a circular economy, introduced by the late David Pearce in 1990, addresses the interlinkages of the four economic functions of the environment. The environment not only provides amenity values, in addition to being a resource base and a sink for economic activities, it is also a fundamental life-support system. Environmental economists have suggested that, taking these four functions as an analytical starting point, unpriced or underpriced services should be internalised in the economy. In Europe significant advances have been achieved in the pricing of externalities by means of truly interdisciplinary analysis which accounts in detail for the environmental consequences. The monetary estimates reached as a result of such interdisciplinary research are gradually being applied to the economic analysis of environmental policy priorities. Although such figures provide only a partial and incomplete picture of the environmental costs at stake, they support and inform the analysis of the virtues of a circular economy for individual resources as well as for sustainability as a future trajectory.     

Spatial analysis of the environmental conflict between state,society and industry at the Map Ta Phut-Rayong conurbation in Thailand

Industrialization is a common strategy adapted by developing countries in order to stimulate urban development and socio-economic development. Unless guided by a stringent development plan, industrialization-based urban development can lead to negative environmental consequences. This paper examines the environmental conflict that raged into an impasse between the state, society and industry stakeholders at the Map Ta Put industrial zone of the Eastern Seaboard Development Program of Thailand. Using RS–GIS tools, the study conducted a spatial–environmental analysis to elucidate the causes for the conflict and the outcome of the pragmatic approach of the state to resolve it. The study finds expansion of industries and spread of industrial air pollution beyond the buffer zone into the surrounding residential area as the main reasons for the conflict. The policy interventions by the government since 2007 were found to be ineffective to resolve the conflict. Based on the lessons learnt, the study recommends a three-pronged approach to guide similar type of industrial development toward green growth in future.     

ICT applications in the research into environmental sustainability: a user preferences approach

Whether information and communication technology (ICT) constitutes a threat or a cure to environment??s deterioration is controversially discussed. Empirical evidence on the impacts of ICT is rare, so that generalizable lessons can hardly be drawn. This study provides empirical results on the role of ICT in research for environmental sustainability, but instead of ascertaining the impact of ICT on environmental protection, we conduct an analysis of the use of ICT in sustainability research. We assess the preferences of experts in different thematic sustainability fields for applying ICT tools, and we investigate ways to improve the application of these tools in order to augment their returns with respect to environmental protection research. This analysis is based on a set of surveys that were administered to international experts to evaluate the importance of ICT in environmental sustainability research and the research demands in key environmental sectors, such as climate change, natural resources, energy and biodiversity. The methodological framework is built on the analysis of users?? preferences for future developments in ICT tools using stated preferences techniques. Overall results suggest that ICT tools need to be developed in specific contexts, taking into account users?? needs and expectations. Our analysis shows that the use of ICT in environmental research is of great importance in the scientific community, but it can also play a crucial role in the policy context.     

Managing Watershed Externalities in India: Theory and Practice

Watershed development is the focus of poverty alleviation programs in rural India. Watershed projects aim to solve problems of externalities, but they also create their own externalities, which cause uneven distribution of costs and benefits that undermine project objectives and harm the poor. Numerous approaches exist to internalize externalities, including awareness creation, moral suasion, investment subsidies, regulatory limits and fines, indirect benefits, mergers, and recent innovations like payment for environmental services and cap and trade. These can be judged on several criteria; the best approach would solve the problem cost effectively and help or at least not hurt poor people. Watershed projects in India were examined to identify the approaches taken to internalize watershed externalities. Investment subsidies and indirect employment benefits are the least effective approaches theoretically, but they are the most commonly applied, most likely because they are easy to administer and bring popular short term gains. Some theoretically favorable approaches that have been used elsewhere, such as payment for environmental services, may not work as well in India due to high transaction costs. However, one key innovation that easily could be applied in India is to make investment subsidies contingent on performance. Legal support and property rights reform would be needed for other favorable approaches.     

Frameworks and tools for risk assessment of manufactured nanomaterials

Commercialization of nanotechnologies entails a regulatory requirement for understanding their environmental, health and safety (EHS) risks. Today we face challenges to assess these risks, which emerge from uncertainties around the interactions of manufactured nanomaterials (MNs) with humans and the environment. In order to reduce these uncertainties, it is necessary to generate sound scientific data on hazard and exposure by means of relevant frameworks and tools. The development of such approaches to facilitate the risk assessment (RA) of MNs has become a dynamic area of research. The aim of this paper was to review and critically analyse these approaches against a set of relevant criteria. The analysis concluded that none of the reviewed frameworks were able to fulfill all evaluation criteria. Many of the existing modelling tools are designed to provide screening-level assessments rather than to support regulatory RA and risk management. Nevertheless, there is a tendency towards developing more quantitative, higher-tier models, capable of incorporating uncertainty into their analyses. There is also a trend towards developing validated experimental protocols for material identification and hazard testing, reproducible across laboratories. These tools could enable a shift from a costly case-by-case RA of MNs towards a targeted, flexible and efficient process, based on grouping and read-across strategies and compliant with the 3R (Replacement, Reduction, Refinement) principles. In order to facilitate this process, it is important to transform the current efforts on developing databases and computational models into creating an integrated data and tools infrastructure to support the risk assessment and management of MNs.     

Exploring the effects of population growth on future land use change in the Las Vegas Wash watershed: an integrated approach of geospatial modeling and analytics

The Las Vegas Valley metropolitan area is one of the fastest growing areas in the southwestern United States. The rapid urbanization has presented many environmental challenges. For instance, as population growth and urbanization continue, the supply of sufficient clean water will become a concern. In addition, the area is also experiencing the longest drought in history, and the volume of water storage in Lake Mead, the main fresh water supply for the entire region, has been reduced greatly. The water quality in the main stem of the Las Vegas Wash (LVW) and Lake Mead may also be significantly affected. In order to develop effective sustainable management plans, the very first step is to predict the plausible future urbanization and land use patterns. This paper presents an approach to predict the future land use pattern at the LVW watershed using a Markov cellular automata model. The multi-criteria evaluation was used to couple population density as a variable depicting the driving force of urbanization in the model. Moreover, landscape metrics were used to analyze land use changes in order to better understand the dynamics of urban development in the LVW watershed. The predicted future land use maps for the years 2030 and 2050 show substantial urban development in the area, much of which are located in areas sensitive to source water protections. The results of the analysis provide valuable information for local planners and policy makers, assisting their efforts in constructing alternative sustainable urban development schemes and environmental management strategies.     

海底可燃冰开发环境风险多元共治之论证与路径展开

有效规制海底可燃冰开发伴生的多种类型生态环境风险,是保障可燃冰产业健康发展的内在需求。本文的主要目的即在中国现行法律体系规定的多元共治的环境法治理念和制度框架下,研究海底可燃冰开发环境风险多元共治的理论基础、现实必要性及其制度路径。文章主要运用类型化方法来梳理与归纳海底可燃冰开发引致环境风险的具体类型;运用理论分析与价值分析方法,论证海底可燃冰开发环境风险多元共治的必要性;运用法教义学分析、比较分析与系统分析方法,检视与剖析我国传统行政管制模式下的制度体系在规制海底可燃冰开发环境风险中的绩效与利弊,归纳与展开海底可燃冰开发环境风险多元共治的制度路径。本文的基本结论是,传统环境管制模式难以有效治理海底可燃冰开发引致的新型环境风险,当前我国所创新的环境多元共治模式,可以矫正政府单维管制海底可燃冰开发环境风险中的缺陷、弥补"监管之法"在规制海底可燃冰开发环境风险中的疏漏、克服单一行政命令方式在规制海底可燃冰开发环境风险中的困境,系统构建海底可燃冰开发环境风险多元治理体系。在完善行政监管和推进私人治理两个层面对海底可燃冰开发环境风险多元共治的基础上提出具体建议。在完善行政监管层面,我国《环境保护法》《海洋环境保护法》等法律规范经过拓展解释适用,仍然因为规制路径的间接性、零散性而产生内生弊端,亟待专门立法;在推进私人治理层面,多元共治机制分为多元主体参与机制与诉讼机制,应重视通过鼓励环保公益组织、可燃冰行业协会与私人等多元主体采取多元参与和私益诉讼方式,以发挥其在规制海底可燃冰开发环境风险中的综合效用。     

A review of regulatory decisions for environmental protection: part II - the case-study of contaminated land management in Portugal

This paper provides a case-study analysis of the challenges in the implementation of national soil policies, which was developed by the authors in Part I of the review of regulatory decisions for environmental protection [Rodrigues SM, Pereira ME, Ferreira da Silva E, Hursthouse A, Duarte AC. A review of regulatory decisions for environmental management: Part I-challenges in the implementation of national soil policies. Environ Int 2009. doi:10.1016/j.envint.2008.08.007]. The Portuguese case was selected as a case-study since specific regulatory decisions for contaminated land management are still in the early stages of development. Given the gap between the situation at the EU level and the state of Portuguese soil policy development, it is of merit to consider national contaminated land policy regimes already in place within the EU and to see if these provide a suitable basis to define the main challenges and research needs for the implementation of a Portuguese contaminated land management strategy. A framework combining the D-P-S-I-R (drivers-pressures-sources-impacts-responses) structure of policy evaluation with the Source-Pathway-Receptor approach to health risk assessment is proposed to derive an effective regulatory framework for managing contaminated land in Portugal, using available information and only to develop new data and research where knowledge gaps exist. Funding site clean-up and assigning liability were identified as relevant factors currently hampering site remediation. Most relevant research needs for the development of contaminated land management practices in Portugal are those associated to the definition of a risk assessment framework and setting guidelines for the evaluation of risks posed to both humans and ecosystems. Other relevant and innovative features are the integration of soil function analysis into site investigations and the definition of a framework that combines risk assessment with soil function analysis. The analysis of the Portuguese case also provides insight into the discussions needed for the effective development of regulatory decisions for contaminated land management in countries with no history of implementing specific soil policies.     

Contributions of sustainability science to the study of environmental health problems

From the ontological point of view, environmental health problems do not differ from problems of unsustainability. This leads us to think that sustainability science could contribute to resolve important questions that studies on environmental health are not resolving. A literature review was made in order to analyse the scope and limitations of studies on environmental health problems. Based on the characteristics of environmental health studies, we highlighted some examples of questions that are being ignored and analysed four contributions that sustainability science could make to solve them. These contributions come from three key components of sustainability science: (1) the unit of analysis—social–ecological systems, (2) a theory—resilience theory and, specifically, social–ecological resilience, (3) and the approaches of complex systems and transdisciplinarity. From a sustainability science perspective, four contributions could be made: environmental health problems are redefined as social–ecological systems; environmental health is assumed to be the result of adaptation processes; the environment and society are recognized as systems, not as matrices of factors; and human action acquires content and structure and, in turn, explains the behaviour of environmental health problems.     

中国FDI环境效应的再检验

改革开放以来,外商直接投资(FDI)的涌入为中国经济发展注入了新活力,并成为中国经济高速增长的重要引擎之一。然而,随着康菲石油渤海漏油事故、江苏启东王子造纸排污和阿玛尼污染投诉等涉外污染事件报道频出,学术界对于FDI涌入可能带来的负面环境效应表现出一定担忧。现有文献多聚焦于整体层面的FDI环境效应检验,而对其区域差异及原因产生机制的系统探究并不多见。为此,本文从理论判断和命题推演出发,利用2003—2014年中国省际面板数据,以改进熵值法拟合环境污染综合指数,并构建普通面板模型,实证检验了FDI流入对中国环境污染的影响及其区域差异。结果表明,总体而言,"污染光环"假说在中国基本成立,即FDI流入在一定程度上改善了中国环境质量,但不同地区FDI的环境效应有所不同,其主要表现为沿海和内陆地区FDI具有显著的"污染光环"效应,且前者强于后者,而沿边地区FDI具有不明显的"污染天堂"效应。在此基础上,构造面板门槛模型,进一步系统考察了FDI对中国环境污染影响的4种主要吸收能力因素的门槛效应。门槛回归结果表明,FDI对中国环境污染的影响显著存在基于经济发展、环境规制、人力资本和金融发展水平的双门槛效应。经济发展、人力资本和金融发展水平越高,FDI的"污染光环"效应越明显,而适度的环境规制才更有利于FDI环境技术溢出的发挥。基于此,本文建议应进一步全方位地提高对外开放水平,一如既往地积极引进并监督FDI;同时地方政府也需认清地区发展的不平衡性,进而采取差异化的引资政策。     

Strategic environmental assessment in Hong Kong

This review examines the development and application of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) process in the planning framework of Hong Kong. Two strategic planning case studies are evaluated within the context of SEA, namely the Territorial Development Strategy Review (TDS Review) and the Third Comprehensive Transport Study (CTS-3). Rapid population growth and urbanisation in Hong Kong, coupled with a historic lack of planning controls and inherent conflicts between government departments have been major obstacles to achieving sustainable development in the territory. Despite these challenges, Hong Kong was one of the first Asian countries to apply SEA to major development plans, where the implementation of the 'SUSDEV 21' study on sustainable development has demonstrated the government's commitment towards integrated environmental protection. The application of SEA has provided decision-makers with key information on potential environment impacts arising from proposed developments, resulting in greater accountability and transparency in the decision-making process. SEA in Hong Kong has also prompted an increased level of environmental awareness and co-operation between government departments and agencies responsible for the management of Hong Kong's natural and urban environments. However, the application of SEA in Hong Kong continues to have notable limitations. SEA needs to evolve beyond its current sectoral application to examine ways in which development decisions can not only pre-empt and prevent environmental damage, but also positively enhance and restore existing natural resources. Current land use plans and transportation strategies still largely determine the pattern of development in the near future without adequate longer-term environmental cost-benefit analysis. Sustainable development includes environmental, social and economic considerations, and these inter-related elements need be suitably balanced. SEA is not a means to obstruct development in Hong Kong, but should be recognised for its inherent socio-economic and ecological value, and fully integrated with the decision-making process. Whilst it is admirable that Hong Kong has taken positive steps in this direction, it is now an opportune moment for the government to have the foresight and tenacity to create a sustainable development framework for Hong Kong into the future.     

Australia and Russia: How do their environmental policy processes differ?

This paper focuses on comparative review and analysis of the systems of environmental protection, national environmental strategies and fundamentals of environmental legislation in Australia and the Russian Federation. These countries have many socioeconomic similarities, such as low population densities and richness in natural resources which are largely exported. The main disparity between Australia and Russia is in the types of economy. This paper ‘continues’ the sequence of recent scholarly publications on comparison of various features of environmental policies in the countries from all over the world. Comparative analysis in this research has been based on examination of scholarly publications, legislation, government documents, mass media sources and NGO responses. The analysis has revealed a number of differences including top-down implementation of policies in Russia whereas in Australia, each State (Territory) implements policies with significant independence from the Commonwealth Government. At the same time, similarities between the countries have been identified: for example, in deficits in the budget of local environmental authorities and in the presence of contradictions in legislation at national and regional levels of government. Suggestions resulting from this analysis include further integration of sustainable development strategies at all levels of Australian government to encourage further protection of the environment and, for Russia, creating a separate Ministry of Environmental Protection. These approaches should assist facilitation of sustainable development for both nations. Readers should send their comments on this paper to: BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.     

Chlorinated paraffins: a review of analysis and environmental occurrence

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs), as technical mixtures of polychlorinated alkanes (PCAs), are ubiquitous in the environment. CPs tend to behave in a similar way to persistent organic pollutants (POPs), leading several countries to impose regulations on the use of CPs. In this article, we review the literature on the properties of CPs, the current analytical tools available to determine CPs in various types of environmental matrices, and concentrations found in the environment. In particular, concentrations of CPs in environmental compartments including air, water, sediments, biota, human food products and human tissues are summarized. Priorities for future research are: improvements in analytical methodologies (reducing the complexity of the analysis, producing reference materials and performing interlaboratory studies); determining background levels of chlorinated paraffins in the environment and human populations (this question should be answered using quality assured analytical tools allowing the intercomparison of data); and investigating the sources of CPs to the environment and to humans.     

Integration of environmental and human health risk assessment for industries using hazardous materials: a quantitative multi criteria approach for environmental decision makers

Environmental management, for which environmental and human health risk assessment is the first stage, is a requirement for industries both before construction and during operation in order to sustain improved quality of life in the ecosystem. Therefore, the aim of this study is to propose an approach that integrates environmental and human health risk assessment for industries using hazardous materials in order to support environmental decision makers with quantitative and directive results. Analytic hierarchy process and fuzzy logic are used as tools to handle problems caused by complexity of environment and uncertain data. When the proposed approach is implemented to a scenario, it was concluded that it is possible to define risk sources with their risk classes and related membership degrees in that classes which enable the decision maker to decide which risk source has priority. In addition, they can easily point out and rank the factors contributing those risk sources owing to priority weights of them. As a result, environmental decision makers can use this approach while they are developing management alternatives for unfounded and on-going industrial plants using hazardous materials.     

基于环境修正的中国农业全要素生产率度量

环境的外部性使包含环境影响的生产率度量一直是个难题,而此类研究对推动我国农业可持续发展具有重要意义.本文提出了一种度量和评估包含环境影响的农业生产率方法,在本研究中,环境的外部性通过定义一个包含市场产出和污染产出的总产出而纳入分析框架,用总产出代替传统TFP计算中的产出,包含环境影响的全要素生产率公式得以建立.利用基于单元的综合调查评价法计算了1990-2008年我国主要农业污染物排放数量,并在此基础上度量了基于环境修正的我国农业全要素生产率.研究表明在1990-2008年间我国经环境调整后的农业生产率增长呈现减小趋势,农业环境污染使农业生产率增长降低0.09%-0.6%,量呈现较大的时期变化;依据不同环境污染价值损失评估法,环境对农业全要素生产率的修正会带来或高或低的结果.为了更准确地度量环境对农业全要素生产率的影响,需要进一步探索环境污染价值评估方法,完善我国农业环境监测体系.     

江苏环境经济系统的能值分析与可持续发展对策研究

能值分析将自然资本的价值纳入人类社会环境经济系统评价范畴，解决了传统方法无法衡量自然资本服务价值对经济过程的影响问题。文章通过对江苏主要能值指标的分析，得出江苏环境经济系统近20年来的发展是不可持续的，并从能值分析角度提出实施江苏可持续发展的对策。     

生态环境损害责任确立的理论基础研究——以马克思主义生态文明观为视角

中共中央办公厅和国务院办公厅印发的《生态环境损害赔偿制度改革试点方案》已经明确提出了生态环境损害的赔偿问题,对生态环境本身造成损害需要承担责任将成为中国法治时代又一个崭新的命题,对生态环境造成损害担责因何而生、又因何而立?生态环境损害责任确立的理论根据到底是什么?笔者认为只有明确生态环境损害责任确立的理论基础,才能促进生态损害赔偿制度的有效构建与救济机制的健康运行,才能为"美丽中国"建设提供法治保障。本文以马克思主义生态文明观为研究视角,探讨了生态文明观作为中国生态环境损害责任确立的理论基础之科学性与合理性。本文研究发现,马克思主义生态文明观不仅扫清了环境损害责任确立的思想和认识障碍,而且回应了个别学者对环境损害责任成立的质疑,为环境损害责任的确立奠定了思想和理论基础;不仅如此,生态文明观还为环境损害责任的实施提供了政治、经济、文化、技术和法治保障,是生态文明观孕育了环境损害责任。本文进一步分析了生态文明观之所以能够孕育环境损害责任制度的原因,是因为生态文明观与环境损害责任有诸多内在的共同性:生态文明观与环境损害责任之间同根同源,都起源于生态环境危机的时代背景,直接目的就是为了实现环境保护,共同的手段就是环境法治,最深层次的共同价值追求是实现人与自然的和谐共生。中国未来生态环境损害责任制度的建立与运行,应当自觉坚持以马克思主义生态文明观为指导,自觉将马克思主义生态文明观作为思想指南和理论渊源。