Evaluation of gas release rate through holes in pipelines

A mathematical model of an accidental gas release in a long transmission pipeline is presented in terms of computational fluid mechanics. It was found that the hole model is suitable for the release of gas through a small hole, while the pipe model is suitable for the gas release through a hole corresponding to the complete breaking of the pipe. In this paper, a new model was proposed for a hole that lies between both these situations. The results of the example show that when the initial inside pressure is higher than 1.5 MPA, the mass of gas released during the sonic flow is more than 90% of the total mass of gas released. The average release rate of the total release process could be substituted by the average release rate of the sonic flow, or by 30% of the initial release rate. This approximation would become more accurate with the increase in the initial inside pressure.     

Evaluation of hazard range for the natural gas jet released from a high-pressure pipeline: A computational parametric study

In the present study, the hazard range of the natural gas (NG) jet released from a high-pressure pipeline was investigated. A one-dimensional integral model was combined with a release model to calculate the length and width (i.e., size), and the shape of NG jet release. The physical parameters affecting the jet release of NG were categorized into three types: source release, environmental and time parameters. The effects of each type of parameters on the gas jet release rate, size and shape were evaluated systematically. The results show that all of these parameters have important influence on the hazard range of NG jet release. The source release parameters, including the pipeline length, the operation pressure of the pipeline, the release hole diameter and the pipe diameter, dominate the gas release rate through a hole and therefore the length and width of gas jet release. The gas jet release rate and size are found to be highly correlative with these parameters in terms of power curve regression analysis. The environmental parameters including the atmospheric stability, the ambient wind speed and the source height, have no influence on the gas jet release rate but have influence on the hazard range of gas jet by the turbulent mixing and dilution of NG with air. The time parameters including the concentration averaged time and the valve closing time which are related to the unsteady state jet release of NG, also show the influence on the hazard range of gas jet release. The results show that the decreasing valve closing time and increasing gas concentration averaged time are in favor of reducing the length and width of gas jet release. In addition, these computational parametric studies indicate that the parameters of source release and time have no significant influence on the shape of gas jet release (i.e., jet length/width ratio, LWR) which can maintain the values between 7 and 8. However, the environmental parameters have influence on the shape of gas jet release. These comprehensive investigations provide useful database of evaluating the hazard range for NG jet released from a hole on a high-pressure pipeline and also provide the foundation of decision-making for further fire and/or explosion evaluation and people evacuation.     

Utilization of regression technique to develop a predictive model for hazard radius from release of typical methane-rich natural gas

The aim of hazardous area classification around equipment handling or storing of flammable fluids is to avoid the ignition of those releases that may occur from time to time in the operation of these equipment. There is a point source approach for the classification of hazardous areas which can estimate hazard radius by using hole size and release pressure. Methane-rich natural gas is widely used or produced in the process industries. Till date, there exist no reference that represents hazard radii for the wide range of possible hole sizes and release pressures of this fluid. The aim of the present study was to propose a predictive model for estimation of hazard radii due to releases of typical methane-rich natural gas based on hole size and release pressure. In this study, a complete database of hazard radii due to a broad range of hole sizes and release pressures was provided using available discharge and dispersion models. A regression-based model for estimation of hazard radii was developed based on the provided database. Performance investigation of the proposed model and a case study showed that the results are reliable with an acceptable standard error.     

Methodology for selecting hole sizes for consequence studies

Predicting release rates is the first step, and a crucial step, in consequence analysis. When the release is from an isolated volume of vessel and/or piping, the release rate decreases with time. There is often debate about what equivalent hole sizes should be used for a consequence study, and usually a range of hole sizes (3–4 values) is examined.This paper shows the effect of hole size on the ultimate impact of hydrocarbon releases for several scenarios and the methodology to select them. The impact depends on the intensity and exposure time. The intensity for a fire is the thermal radiation level, and that for an unignited release is the gas concentration. As the release rate decreases with time, so does the intensity. Probit functions describe the probability of a given impact based on the time-varying intensity. For a number of example scenarios, the predictions show that the worst-case hole size is an intermediate hole size, i.e., the impact goes through a maximum with increasing hole size. For smaller holes, the event is small enough that its impact is low even though the duration is long. For larger holes, the initial event is large but decreases so rapidly that the impact is low. For the intermediate hole, the event is large enough, and the duration long enough, to cause the greatest impact.This consequence study was made evaluating hole sizes with diameters between 5 and 400 mm in a fixed volume upstream process vessel. Worst case scenario consequence predictions for fire damages, effects on people and toxic releases were determined to be somewhat different for different hole sizes. However, hole sizes in the 30 mm–90 mm range seems to have the highest impact in dry gas service.     

高压管道天然气泄漏扩散过程的数值模拟

采用CFD模型的方法对高压管道内的天然气泄漏和扩散过程进行了数值模拟。其结果表明，从高压管道泄出的天然气在大气中主要表现为高速射流的泄漏过程和随后的扩散过程。在泄漏过程中，天然气在泄漏口附近为欠膨胀射流，整个泄漏过程具有一定的高度；在扩散过程中，天然气在浮力作用下以向上扩散的形式发展。研究了不同环境风速对扩散过程的影响，较大的风速可以使天然气向下风方向更远的距离扩散，从而增大了天然气爆炸危险浓度的范围。研究结果可     

含硫天然气净化厂硫化氢泄漏分析及对策

以川东北某含硫天然气净化厂为对象,通过分析该净化厂的处理工艺及可能造成泄漏的各种原因,确定了硫化氢泄漏危险较高的生产单元。通过工艺压力、流量、物料组分的比对,选取了脱硫单元原料气和硫磺回收单元酸性气作为模拟泄漏物料。对该厂所在地的气象条件和厂区的地形地貌进行了调查,净化厂当地近5年风速、云量统计表明低风速和多云为主导天气,将D1.5m/s作为模拟硫化氢泄漏扩散的典型气象条件。采用了美国石油学会(API)推荐地面粗糙度长度。运用PHAST软件计算了在典型气象条件下通过3种不同孔径泄漏1 min,5min和30min,形成的立即危及生命或健康(IDLH)范围。在典型气象条件下IDLH的下风向边界距离在41m至1190m范围内,以硫磺回收单元的大孔径泄漏为最远。以小孔泄漏为例模拟并讨论了风速、大气稳定度对硫化氢扩散的影响。为降低H2S泄漏风险提出了在线监测及联锁系统设置的要求,对避免和减少硫化氢中毒伤亡事故具有指导意义。     

城市综合管廊燃气舱室输气管道泄漏扩散规律研究

为了掌握输气管道在城市综合管廊舱室泄漏扩散的基本规律,采用FLUENT软件,针对管廊正常通风—泄漏报警—事故通风—警报解除的全过程进行动态分析。首先在正常通风速度建立的稳态风场中,模拟天然气在不同管输压力下发生小孔泄漏后的报警时间,根据首个响应的报警器的位置判断泄漏源位置。结果表明,当泄漏孔径为20 mm,通风速度为1.92 m/s,且泄漏源处于2个报警器中间时,管输压力为200,400,800 kPa时对应的报警时间分别为10.4,6.7,4.5 s。事故通风速度下,对不同管输压力的天然气扩散进行分析,当天然气朝逆风侧扩散时,随动量逐渐减小而到达不同的边界坐标。同时,环境大气压的降低不仅会缩短报警器的首次报警时间,还能延长总扩散距离。预测所得的天然气爆炸上下限浓度区移动速度有助于动态了解处于爆炸上下限浓度之间气体的实时位置。解除报警时间与进风口风速呈近似线性关系,可为现场救援队伍选择经济通风量提供理论指导。     

高含硫气田集气站设备定量风险评价

为预防高含硫天然气泄漏事故和制定设备检测策略,对集气站设备进行定量风险评价。利用DNV Leak数据库得到集气站关键设备的同类失效频率,利用API 581标准对同类失效频率修正得到失效频率。用PHAST软件计算4种典型泄漏孔尺寸的燃烧爆炸和毒性的影响区域范围,确定设备的燃烧爆炸风险和毒性风险。结果表明,利用该方法能够确定设备风险大小顺序。     

煤与瓦斯突出预测技术研究现状及发展趋势

对矿井煤与瓦斯突出预测方法的研究现状及发展趋势进行了论述及分析。目前我国大量使用的是钻屑量S、钻孔瓦斯涌出初速度q、瓦斯解吸指标Δh2 、瓦斯放散指数ΔP等钻孔静态预测方法 ,这些方法花费大量的人力、物力和财力 ,而且准确性较低。而声发射和电磁辐射等方法是很有前途的预测方法。未来煤与瓦斯突出预测的发展趋势是 ,利用声发射监测技术对变形破裂剧烈区域进行定位 ,利用电磁辐射监测技术工作面非接触连续预测 ,再结合现有的环境监测系统监测的瓦斯动态涌出对煤与瓦斯突出现象进行准确预测     

Hydrocarbon releases on oil and gas production platforms: Release scenarios and safety barriers

The main objective of this paper is to present and discuss a set of scenarios that may lead to hydrocarbon releases on offshore oil and gas production platforms. Each release scenario is described by an initiating event (i.e., a deviation), the barrier functions introduced to prevent the initiating event from developing into a release, and how the barrier functions are implemented in terms of barrier systems. Both technical and human/operational safety barriers are considered. The initiating events are divided into five main categories: (1) human and operational errors, (2) technical failures, (3) process upsets, (4) external events or loads, and (5) latent failures from design. The release scenarios may be used as basis for analyses of: (a) the performance of safety barriers introduced to prevent hydrocarbon releases on specific platforms, (b) the platform specific hydrocarbon release frequencies in future quantitative risk analyses, (c) the effect on the total hydrocarbon release frequency of the safety barriers and risk reducing measures (or risk increasing changes).     

石门揭煤过程中煤与瓦斯延时突出及防治技术研究

在综述煤与瓦斯延时突出机理及其影响因素的基础上,详细地分析石门揭煤过程中煤与瓦斯延时突出时各种因素在延时突出中的作用,并从空间和时间的角度,对石门揭煤过程中巷道煤与瓦斯延时突出整个过程进行详细描述。根据掘进工作面附近暴露煤体的"三区"分布规律及其与延时突出的关系;提出先采用钻孔抽放石门突出煤层瓦斯等措施分阶段释放煤与瓦斯突出动力源;再用注液冻结技术增强揭开煤体的强度、增加集中应力区和卸压区的长度来防止被揭开煤体发生流变而导致延时突出的防突技术;以及在揭煤后采取迅速支护防止空顶和冒落等防治措施。研究成果为开发技术可行、经济合理的快速安全揭煤技术提供理论基础。     

Critical dimensions of holes and slots for transmission of gas explosions: Some preliminary results for propane/air and cylindrical holes

Critical hole diameters for explosion transmission from a primary virtually closed chamber into an ambient gas cloud were determined. Most of the present experiments were conducted with a 1-l primary chamber. The motivation for the study is two-fold. First, results from this kind of experiment are of direct practical use in further improvement of design and maintenance procedures of “flame-proof” electrical equipment. However, such experiments can also contribute to improvement of the general understanding of the mechanisms of flame propagation in turbulent, premixed gases. The preliminary experimental results presented confirm that the minimum tube diameter for flame transmission depends strongly on the location of the ignition point. The generally accepted limiting values are conservative, in the sense that they can only be approached if the ignition source is located in a narrow zone in the vicinity of the entrance to the transmission hole. This must be taken into account if flame-proof equipment is to be designed on the basis of risk analysis. An observation related to mechanisms of turbulent flame propagation in premixed gases in general was also made. In the case of ignition far away from the transmission hole, i.e. for high gas velocities through the hole at the moment of flame front arrival at the hole, the re-ignition probability for a given hole diameter was in fact higher for off-stoichiometric propane concentrations than for concentrations close to stoichiometry. The average chemical reaction rate in the primary chamber had its peak in the region of stoichiometry, and hence the pressure in the primary chamber at the moment of flame front arrival at the transmission hole entrance, was also at its maximum in that concentration range. Therefore, the average turbulence intensity in the potential re-ignition zone, and hence the rate of entrainment of cold unburnt gas by the hot jet was also at its maximum. Hence, a main reason for the observed effect may be that at stoichiometry more efficient cooling by cold-gas entrainment, compared with at leaner and richer mixtures, more than compensated for the faster chemical reaction.     

CFD analysis of the dispersion of toxic materials in road tunnels

The present work is aimed at analyzing the evolution of accidental scenarios deriving from the release of toxic materials inside a tunnel. This scenario, compared to the more frequently investigated cases of fire, followed by smoke dispersion, may involve a large variety of common products characterized by widely differing physical properties; nonetheless it has been analysed in the literature less than expected. The present study compares the dispersion of two common toxic chemicals (chlorine and ammonia), in order to derive some preliminary information about the influence of the physical properties and the release rate. A reference road tunnel geometry is assumed, while the release occurs from ground level, at the centre of one lane and in the middle of the tunnel. Two study cases involving a road tanker, transporting the product as liquefied gas under pressure, were considered: a catastrophic release, from a 220 mm hole, emptying the tanker in a few tens seconds (case A), and a continuous release, from a much smaller hole (15 mm), lasting 5 min (case B). For the sake of simplicity, the release is assumed to be in gaseous phase; the dispersion of the toxic is simulated for the 5 min period following the start of the release using a CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) analysis, according to an RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes) approach with the standard k–ε turbulence model, assuming no ventilation conditions. Structured curvilinear grids with hexaedric cells, refined according to the local concentration gradient, are used. For case A scenarios, especially for the whole release duration, dispersion is mainly governed by the “plug-flow” effect caused by the large volume of toxic entering the tunnel in a rather short time; then, the role of diffusivity and gravity becomes more important. Chlorine, heavier than air and with lower diffusivity than ammonia, progressively accumulates towards the floor; the dispersion of ammonia, which is lighter than air, appears more influenced by diffusivity than by gravity, since a limited stratification is observed. These trends are more evident for case B scenarios, where the toxic flow rates are much lower. It is expected the results will give some useful insight into the dispersion phenomenon within highly confined spaces and maybe also provide some suggestion about ventilation systems design and emergency procedures.     

下向穿层瓦斯抽采钻孔新型封孔方法及应用

潘三煤矿17181(1)运输顺槽顶板岩层含水丰富,下向穿层钻孔抽采17181(1)运顺瓦斯受岩层富水影响较大。为解决这一问题,结合潘三矿11-2煤顶板实际情况,分析了影响下向穿层钻孔抽采瓦斯的主要因素,提出了"先区域封水,后打抽采钻孔,再利用‘两堵一注’快速封孔法封孔"成套技术解决方案,形成了一种新型下向穿层瓦斯抽采钻孔封孔方法。经潘三矿17181(1)瓦斯综合治理巷现场实践证明,下向穿层抽采钻孔的瓦斯抽采纯量与抽采浓度均有大幅度提高,钻孔封孔效果良好。     

Research and application of drainage parameters for gas accumulation zone in overlying strata of goaf area

While coal seam is being mined, an annular fissure circle with gas accumulation will be formed in the fissure zone as a result of desorption, dissipation and permeation of gas in the goaf area and overlying strata due to fissures from rock caving and mitigation in the roof. The methods for computation of spatial locations of the fissure circle are researched in this paper. Based on these methods, gas drainage technique for the fissure zone is optimized. By applying drill hole returning water method of variables, the height of caving zone that most affects the drainage effects of inclined high dip drill hole was measured on the site. Due to the consistency of the expected height with the computed height of caving lines at different positions, the correctness of the theoretical computation method is further validated. Meanwhile, the parameters of the inclined high dip drill hole at #3311 working face of Hexi Coal Mine are determined by a case study.     

考虑气液置换的压回法气井压井过程对井底压力的影响*

为在压回法气井压井计算中进一步贴合现场实际情况,提出新的压回法气井压井过程计算方法。在压井过程中,考虑压井液与侵入井筒的气体发生置换,导致井筒流体自上而下分布为液－气液２相－气－气液２相的实际问题,建立压井过程模型,并对井底压力的变化进行计算分析。结果表明:发生气液置换对压回法压井过程井底压力以及注入压力具有明显影响,考虑气液置换对井底压力的控制可更加精确,同时,气液置换越多,压回过程所需要的注入压力越大,易引起更加严重事故。因此,气液置换过程在压回法压井过程不可忽略。     

A new look at release event frequencies

Within the context of a quantitative risk analysis (QRA), the two main constituents used to describe petrochemical risks are, and have always been, consequence and probability. The consequences of hazardous material accidents are easy to apprehend – if a hazard is realized it can injure people or cause fatalities, damage equipment or other assets, or cause environmental damage. Frequencies for these consequences, on the other hand, are not as easy to understand. Process safety professionals develop event frequencies by evaluating historical data and calculating incident rates, which represent, in the QRA context, how often a release of a hazardous material has occurred. Incident rates are further modified by probabilities for various hole sizes, release orientations, weather conditions, ignition timing, and other factors, to arrive at unique event probabilities that are applied in the QRA. This paper describes the development of incident rates from historical database information for various equipment types, as well as defining a methodology for assigning hole size probabilities from the same data, such that a hole size distribution can be assigned within each QRA study. The combination of total incident rates and a hole size distribution relationship can then serve as a foundation within the frequency side of many QRA studies.     

天然气管道不同孔径泄漏失效概率量化方法研究*

为研究不同孔径泄漏下天然气管道失效概率,首先基于EGIG数据库和UKOPA数据库天然气管道历史失效数据,计算由不同失效原因导致3种孔径泄漏所占比例;然后将我国管道各原因基础失效概率按照对应比例分别进行修正,获得较适用于我国天然气管道特点的不同孔径泄漏基础失效概率;最后分别考虑第三方破坏、腐蚀、施工缺陷/材料失效、误操作、自然力破坏5种失效原因,完成对天然气管道不同孔径泄漏基础失效概率的修正计算。研究结果表明:小孔泄漏、中孔泄漏和破裂泄漏的基础失效概率分别为0.173,0.128,0.048次/（103 km·a）;修正因子包括管径、埋深、壁厚、管龄、防腐层类型、管道所处区域,上述因子能够满足不同场景下天然气管道失效概率的修正计算;概率量化方法综合考虑失效原因、泄漏孔径以及管道本体信息,能够定量化预测天然气管道失效概率,为天然气管道定量风险评价提供数据支撑。     

微胶囊包覆膨胀剂对煤矿封孔水泥膨胀性能的影响研究

针对当前矿用水泥封孔材料中膨胀剂的膨胀能效发挥不足,会导致瓦斯抽采过程中封孔材料干缩漏气的现象,基于微胶囊缓控释放原理和材料“膨胀-强度协调发展”机理,运用微胶囊复合技术制得微胶囊UEA膨胀剂。借助SEM、XRD等测试手段,详细研究了几组水泥浆的膨胀性能。结果表明,基准组发生体积收缩;膨胀剂未处理组膨胀率峰值和终值较低;潮湿环境处理组膨胀能损失较大;微胶囊处理组具有延迟膨胀现象,较未处理膨胀剂组延迟2.5h,膨胀率终值较膨胀剂未处理组和潮湿环境处理组分别提高3.33‰和11.06‰。     

液态 CO2 相变致裂煤层增透技术布孔方式研究

液态CO2相变致裂技术是一种新颖的低透煤层增透技术。为了更好地将液态CO2相变致裂技术运用到低透气煤层增透领域中,在平煤十三矿进行了液态CO2相变致裂的穿层强化预抽煤层瓦斯现场试验,通过煤层致裂后的瓦斯抽采效果反映出的不同布孔方式下的致裂差异,确定液态CO2的爆破孔的合理布孔方式。现场试验表明液态CO2相变致裂在交错的梅花孔布置方式下由于能量分布均匀,致裂效果优于矩形孔布置方式,研究结果为该技术在煤层增透强化预抽领域的推广应用奠定了基础。