Aggregated Estimation of Basic Parameters of Biological Production and the Carbon Budget of Russian Terrestrial Ecosystems: 2. Net Primary Production

The estimated net primary production (NPP) of Russian terrestrial ecosystems (annual average over the period from 1988 to 1992) is 9544 Tg of dry matter, or 4353 Tg of carbon. Of the total amount, forests account for approximately 39.2% (here and below, comparisons are made with respect to carbon content); natural grasslands and brushwoods, for 27.6%; farmlands (arable land and cultivated pastures), for 22.0%; and wetlands, for 11.2%. The average NPP density on lands covered with vegetation (1629.8 million hectares in Russia) is 267 g C/m²per year. The highest value (498 g C/m²per year) is characteristic of arable lands. Other land-use/land-cover (LULC) classes have the following NPP densities (in areas covered with vegetation): grasslands and brushwoods, 278 g C/m²; forests, 224 g C/m²; and wetlands, 219 g C/m²per year. In general, Russian terrestrial ecosystems accumulate 59.7% of the total NPP in the aboveground phytomass (47.8% in green parts and 11.9% in wood) and 40.3% in the underground phytomass. The latter parameter differs significantly in different LULC classes and bioclimatic zones. According to calculations, the uncertainty in estimating the total NPP is 11% (a priori confidential probability 0.9).     

近十年长三角地区陆地净第一性生产力时空变化

陆地净第一性生产力（NPP）是陆地生态系统的一项重要指示性指标，与碳循环过程和全球气候变化密切相关，不仅已成为地学研究的热点问题，更受到各国政府的高度重视。长三角地区是我国经济最发达、最具综合竞争力的地区之一，该地区的陆地生态系统同时承受着自然因素及高强度人为活动的双重影响。因此，利用CASA模型，在RS和GIS技术支撑下，探讨近十年来长三角地区陆地NPP的时空演变规律及控制因子，以期为进一步开展高强度人为活动对陆地系统碳循环过程的影响研究提供基础参数。主要结论如下：（1）在时间上呈下降趋势：近十年长三角地区陆地NPP呈现3 a周期式波动下降；（2）在空间上分异规律明显：陆地NPP分布为浙江＞江苏＞上海，呈现南北高中间低的凹槽状；（3）控制NPP的自然要素是NDVI和太阳辐射，而城市化是NPP变化的主要社会经济要素     

Human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) in Nova Scotia,Canada

Photosynthetically fixed energy from the sun, in the form of net primary production, ultimately supports the majority of life on earth. Given the importance of this energy source, we calculate the human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) for the province of Nova Scotia, Canada. We find that over 25% of potentially available production is appropriated by humans through harvest (forestry and agriculture) and land cover change. The level of appropriation in Nova Scotia is close to the global average, when methodological differences between studies are taken into account, but substantially less than in Austria and India where detailed surveys have also been conducted. Furthermore, HANPP is not distributed evenly throughout the province, but is instead concentrated in the north-central counties, where appropriation reaches 50%. We discuss the implications of these results, and the novel method used to obtain them, in the context of biophysical assessment and the species-energy hypothesis.     

Potentials and impacts of short-rotation coppice plantation with aspen in Eastern Germany under conditions of climate change

Woody biomass generated in short-rotation coppice (SRC) plantations with aspen (Populus tremula L.) has good properties for bioenergy crop production: annual yields are high, labour input per year is low, and it is ecologically valuable because of the multi-year rotation periods. Eastern Germany has a special advantage in producing bioenergy crops: the former “agricultural cooperatives” built up quite large farms with, compared to Western Germany, comparatively large fields. Therefore, a modelling study of the potential and the impacts of aspen SRC plantations in the five eastern federal states of Germany under the recent climate and future climate projections was conducted. The ecophysiological forest growth model 4C was used to simulate the growth of aspen SRC plantations and their impacts on carbon in soils, and groundwater recharge, on selected suitable areas currently under crops but with marginal site conditions for cropping. A clear signal to enhanced growth condition over the whole area can be seen in the simulation of the mean annual woody biomass yield under conditions of climate change, which increased from 7.47 t DW ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ under the recent climate to 9.26 t DW ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ at the end of the considered future period 2034–2055 under climate change. The mean soil carbon sequestration rate was 0.81 t C ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ under the recent climate and could rise up to 0.93 t C ha⁻¹ a⁻¹ under the assumption of climate change. On the other hand, the mean annual percolation rate, used as an indicator of impacts on the regional water budget, will diminish under future climatic conditions. The results suggest that aspen SRC plantations are a suitable contribution to regional CO₂ mitigation and carbon sequestration under possible change of climate, but that negative impacts on the regional water budget are possible.     

Energy futures and green chemistry: competing for carbon

Global energy demand is expected to increase from the current 400 ExaJ per year to as much as 700–1,000 ExaJ per year by the middle of this century. If fossil carbon resources continue to make up the bulk of the energy supply, not only will atmospheric carbon dioxide increase to levels not seen for the past 30–35 million years, but depleting fossil carbon resources will become increasingly less available for other purposes, particularly the production of chemicals on which society now depends. The chemical process industries are heavily dependent on the availability of low-price petroleum as a feedstock. Recent life-cycle analyses suggest that pursuing both strategies of renewable energy sources and renewable feedstocks (i.e. biomass) will be required to meet these competing demands. Reducing the global use of both energy and manufactured chemicals will be a challenge for sustainable development. Education of the next generation of chemists and chemical engineers will have to change significantly from its current emphasis on petrochemical-based manufacturing to include a much greater emphasis on renewable resources and bio-based processes.Brief accounts of this work were presented at the 7th International Symposium on Green Chemistry in China (Zhuhai, People’s Republic of China, May 2005) and at the Joint US–China Green Chemistry Workshop (Beijing, People’s Republic of China, May 2005; this workshop was supported by US National Science Foundation grant CHE-0522369).     

基于碳足迹的江西省农田生态系统碳源/汇时空差异

利用2001~2010年江西省农业投入和农作物统计数据，采用碳排放系数法计算了江西省农田生态系统碳源/汇及碳足迹，分析了江西省农田生态系统碳源/汇时空特征，并进一步分析了碳足迹变化特征及原因。结果表明：(1)2001~2010年，江西省农业投入引起的碳排放量从2001年的11910 1×106 t，增加至2010年的5872 8×106 t，增加了103倍，农业机械化对碳排放总量贡献率最大。碳排放强度呈现先增加后减少的趋势。2008年赣州市碳排放量最多，景德镇市最少；(2)2001~2010年江西省农田生态系统碳吸收量先减少，后逐年增加，到2010年又减少，整个2001~2010年间增加3209 9×106 t。各类农作物中，水稻碳吸收量最多。2009年碳吸收量最多的是宜春市，最少的是萍乡市;(3)江西省农田生态系统碳足迹从2001年的07518×106 C〖DK〗·hm-2〖DK〗·a-1，增加至2009年的1473 4×106 C〖DK〗·hm-2〖DK〗·a-1,单位面积碳足迹呈现逐年增加的趋势。2008年碳足迹最多的是赣州市，最少的是萍乡市。南昌市、景德镇市、吉安市和宜春市表现为生态盈余，其余表现为生态赤字。江西省应减少农药、化肥等的使用，控制农业机械化，特别是赣州市，从而达到减少碳排放的目的     

The net ecosystem carbon exchange of human-modified environments in the Australian Capital Region

As part of a larger study to quantify and map ecosystem services in southeast Australia, we estimated carbon stored in biomass and soils and the net ecosystem carbon exchange between the land surface and the atmosphere in the Australian Capital Region (ACR). Our aim was to understand and quantify how different human-modified landscapes provide an essential ecosystem service: the exchange and storage of carbon in the landscape. Using a remote sensing based modelling methodology, we obtained values of Net Primary Productivity (NPP), total carbon in soil and biomass and carbon turnover from meteorological and terrain inputs and vegetation attributes. We obtained a set of maps of NPP, total carbon (C) storage and C-turnover for the ACR. We superimposed a land use/cover map to assign the uptake, storage and release of carbon to different land use/cover types. Our results support the hypothesis that human-intensive land uses significantly affect the ability of terrestrial ecosystems to provide an important ecosystem service in the form of carbon storage.     

Human appropriation of aboveground photosynthetic production in the Czech Republic

We assessed human impacts on ecosystems by calculating the proportion of aboveground net primary production appropriated by humans (aHANPP) in the territory of the Czech Republic. The human appropriation of aboveground net primary production reached 21.5 Tg C per year in 2006 or 56% of the annual potential natural productivity. Harvested productivity equivalent aNPP_H is contributing to the overall appropriation of photosynthetic production by 80%. Considerable productivity losses have been induced by agricultural land conversion and urbanization. While artificial surfaces are responsible for the appropriation of whole ecosystem production, productivity of urban green areas and managed forests can even exceed natural productivity levels. In the period 1990–2000, the aHANPP dropped by 7%, but the indicator shows an increase by over 2% in the period 2000–2006. The indicator of human appropriation of net primary production enables translation of land cover changes into measures of ecosystem services affected by human activities. We found aHANPP to be a suitable indicator of human impacts on ecosystems, as it detects trends and enables spatial mapping of human impacts.     

草地生态系统人工干预对经济福利的影响——以黄河源区为例

为探讨草地生态系统人工干预对区域经济福利的影响，揭示其间的内在规律，选取草地围栏、畜棚建设、草地灭鼠和人工草地建设作为草地生态系统人工干预的重要指标，以人均GDP、农牧民人均收入、人均肉产品产量作为反映区域经济福利指标，并以黄河源区为研究案例，利用回归分析法和SPSS软件建立人工干预和经济福利指标之间的相互关系。结果表明：以畜牧经济为主导的黄河源区，草地围栏、人工草地、畜棚建设与人均GDP、农牧民人均收入、居民人均肉产量均具有较高相关性，草地生态系统人工必要干预对经济福利具有重要的影响；且人工草地、畜棚、围栏单位面积变化对人均GDP、人均收入、人均肉产量具有较高的敏感性，其敏感性依此递减；灭鼠面积除对人均牛羊肉产量具有弱相关外，对人均GDP、农牧民人均收入也具有较高的相关性和敏感性。〖     

Relationship between carbon emissions and economic development: case study of six countries

There is much discussion within the sustainable development community regarding climate stabilization and particularly, finding environmentally equitable ways to address emission reductions. Knowing the current level of emission is only one variable in this complex picture. While the rate of emissions is clearly a problem, the overall increase in GHG concentration in the atmosphere is ultimately the main driver of anthropogenic warming. Therefore, it is also important to understand the cumulative emissions, those which have taken us to the current condition. This research presents a case study of six countries to compare the emissions per capita and cumulative emissions during the past 200 years. It is known that carbon emissions are closely related to economic activities, but here we show that some countries have reached per capita emissions plateaus at different levels while others are still rising. Specifically, one approach toward socioeconomic development, in terms of energy–economy, reaches a plateau at 10 Mt carbon per person, which the United Kingdom and South Korea have attained. The US occupies another emission regime at 20 Mt carbon per person. Developing economies such as India and China are considerably below these levels, and unless they follow other integrated economic/environmental solutions, they will continue to increase their per capita emissions during development.     

城乡居民食物碳消费变化与差异分析——以安徽省为例

经济的快速发展和居民人口的不断增长，给社会和生态环境带来了巨大压力，不可持续的居民食物碳消费是造成全球环境问题的重要原因之一。居民食物碳消费是环境碳循环研究和可持续消费的重要内容。采用政府宏观统计数据，研究了1985~2007年安徽省城乡居民食物碳消费结构和食物碳消费的变化趋势和影响因素，并对城乡差异进行了分析比较，结果表明：(1)城市居民家庭食物碳消费结构转变较农村显著，城市居民食物碳消费从以“粮食碳消费为主”的比较单一的消费模式转变为以“粮食、肉类、食用植物油碳消费为主”的多元消费模式；而农村居民食物碳消费从以“粮食碳消费为主”转变为以“粮食、食用植物油碳消费为主”的多元消费模式；(2)城市居民人均、户均食物碳消费量均呈下降趋势，但食物消费总量却呈上升趋势，加剧了食物碳消费的环境影响；农村人均和户均食物碳消费和碳消费总量呈下降趋势，但人均、户均食物碳消费仍高于城市，农村居民食物碳消费的生态压力依然较大。(3)Pearson乘积相关分析表明，影响城市居民人均食物碳消费的主要因素是恩格尔系数和人均可支配收入，而影响农村居民人均食物碳消费的主要因素是农村人均纯收入。研究结果对进一步探索可持续的居民消费模式和减轻环境影响具有重要的现实意义。
     

西昌市生态空间占用及其生态系统安全评估

生态系统安全的概念应该与人类的可持续发展联系在一起,其安全的目标在于为人类的生存和发展提供持续和良好的生态服务功能,在这一意义上,生态安全就是生态系统的可持续性。生态系统安全是新兴的生态系统管理学概念,是新的环境管理和生态系统管理目标。利用生态占用分析方法,对西昌市整个生态系统的生态盈亏和生态系统安全进行评估,得出西昌市目前人均生态赤字0.6 hm2和生态安全受到挑战的结论。并进行了生态占用的敏感性分析：能源资源消耗降低10%,人均生态赤字降低5.32%;产量因子提高10%,人均生态赤字降低14.01%;能源消耗减低10%,同时产量因子提高10%,人均生态空间赤字减少降低19.33%。指出了能源循环利用、资源节约、技术革新和单位面积资源增值等为主要特征的生态产业发展对生态系统保育的意义和效应。     

南京市快速城市化过程中人均生态足迹的动态变化与预测研究

基于《南京统计年鉴》数据,应用生态足迹分析方法,计算了南京市1992～2002年人均生态足迹、人均生态承载力和生态赤字,并对过去11年生态足迹各项指标及其动态变化进行了分析。结果显示,南京市人均生态足迹明显高于江苏省平均水平,更是高于全国水平的2倍,已超过了2.0 hm2/人的全球生态阈值,人均生态承载力明显偏低,全市生态赤字高达自身面积的20倍,表明南京市资源环境形势不容乐观,区域可持续发展面临严峻挑战。随着城市化、工业化和社会经济的迅速发展,过去11年间南京市呈现人均生态足迹逐年升高、人均生态承载力不断降低的动态趋势。鉴于此,必须实施资源节约高效、生态环境友好、控制人口负荷等重大战略举措,实现快速城市化、工业化背景下的区域可持续发展。其次利用灰色模型预测了2003～2005年的人均生态足迹和生态承载力,预测精度较好。     

2000～2015年江汉平原区域植被NPP时空特征及其对气候变化的响应

植被NPP对气候变化的响应是全球变化与陆地生态系统碳循环研究的重要核心内容之一。利用CASA模型估算了2000~2015年江汉平原植被NPP，并利用线性回归与逐像元相关性分析方法定量研究了江汉平原植被NPP的时空变化特征及其与气候因素的相关性。结果表明：（1）16年来江汉平原植被NPP的年总量在25.43~29.76 TgC之间，呈波动增加趋势；（2）江汉平原NPP的空间分布格局具有明显的不均匀特征，形成一系列的高值中心和低值中心，符合“丘陵-平原-河流-城市”的衰减趋势；（3）江汉平原NPP与年降水量、年均温的相关系数分别为0.183 7和0.498 5；经显著性检验可知，江汉平原NPP的产量与年降水量相关性较弱，而与年均温则呈较强的正相关关系；（4）植被NPP与年降水量、年均温呈正相关的像元面积分别占总面积的69.19%和83.41%，主要分布在江汉平原腹部的农耕区域，说明江汉平原农耕区NPP的产量对年降水量与年均温的依赖性较强。     

Human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) in seagrass ecosystem: an example from the east coast of Bintan Regency,Kepulauan Riau Province,Indonesia

Seagrass ecosystems have a role as providers of ecosystem services and have been used by fisherman for a long time. Information about the connectivity between seagrass ecosystems and fishermen in Indonesia is limited; therefore, this study aims to measure the relationship between the seagrass ecosystem and fishermen in Bintan Regency, Kepulauan Riau Province, Indonesia. The research was conducted from December 2014 to May 2015 in the villages of Teluk Bakau, Malang Rapat, Berakit and Pengudang. The human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) approach was used to measure that connectivity. Seagrasses, planktons, fishes, crabs, squids and mollusks were observed during the East and North seasons. The results showed that HANPP in the East season (March–May) is 62.8 Gg (77.1%) and in the North season (December–February) is 68.8 Gg (84.5%) with an efficiency of, respectively, 77.7 and 79.7%. The traditional fishermen are highly dependent on the seagrass ecosystem. They use the seagrass ecosystem in both the East and North seasons. The proper management of seagrass ecosystem is needed in order to make the life of a traditional fisherman in the Bintan Regency sustainable.     

江苏省沿海地区经济发展与碳排放相关性研究

与能源结构和能源效率因素相比,经济发展对人均碳排放的影响最为显著.以江苏省沿海地区能源消费情况为基础,研究得出地区碳排放、人均碳排放,并且1999-2008年该地区碳排放量与人均碳排放量的增加趋势一致.选取人均GDP来代表经济增长数据,人均CO2排放代表碳排放数据,借助环境库兹涅茨曲线(EKC)模型来分析江苏省沿海地区经济发展与CO2排放之间的关系和演变态势.根据环境库兹涅茨曲线研究江苏省沿海地区经济发展与人均碳排放之间的关系,相关性研究结果表明,最优拟合模型中参数α0为0.245 7,α1为3.658 14e-5,α2为1.318 32e-8,α3为-3.298 09e-13,所以根据模型设定判断得出:1999-2008年间江苏省沿海地区人均碳排放置和人均GDP并不符合标准的环境库兹涅茨曲线(倒U型)关系,而是表现为三次方曲线模型.同时,依据人均碳排放量的变化特征,将江苏省沿海地区人均碳排放分为两个阶段:1999-2006年,人均碳排放量随着经济的增长持续增加;2006-2008年人均碳排放量随经济增加趋势变缓.     

Changes in the spatial patterns of human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) in Europe 1990–2006

Understanding patterns, dynamics, and drivers of land use is crucial for improving our ability to cope with sustainability challenges. The human appropriation of net primary production (HANPP) framework provides a set of integrated socio-ecological indicators that quantify how land use alters energy flows in ecosystems via land conversions and biomass harvest. Thus, HANPP enables researchers to systematically and consistently assess the outcome of changes in land cover and land-use intensity across spatio-temporal scales. Yet, fine-scale HANPP assessments are so far missing, an information important to address site-specific ecological implications of land use. Here, we provide such an assessment for Europe at a 1-km scale for the years 1990, 2000, and 2006. The assessment was based on a consistent land-use/biomass flow dataset derived from statistical data, remote sensing maps, and a dynamic global vegetation model. We find that HANPP in Europe amounted to ~43 % of potential productivity, well above the global average of ~25 %, with little variation in the European average since 1990. HANPP was highest in Central Europe and lower in Northern and Southern Europe. At the regional level, distinct changes in land-use intensity were observed, most importantly the decline of cropland areas and yields following the breakdown of socialism in Eastern Europe and the subsequent recovery after 2000, or strong dynamics related to storm events that resulted in massive salvage loggings. In sum, however, these local dynamics cancelled each other out at the aggregate level. We conclude that this finding warrants further research into aspects of the scale-dependency of dynamics and stability of land use.     

鄱阳湖典型苔草湿地生物量季节变化及固碳功能评价

为进一步评估鄱阳湖湿地碳平衡，量化湿地固碳功能，于2009年9月～2011年5月，在鄱阳湖南矶湿地国家级自然保护区，选择以灰化苔草为建群种的洲滩湿地，采取收获法测定了灰化苔草4个生长季的地上、地下生物量及净初级生产力(NPP)。结果表明：1）苔草地上、地下生物量均具有明显的季节变化模式，变化范围分别为14608～1 77067 、1 80627～4 03256 g/m2；地下生物量与地上生物量的比例变化范围为208～1744，平均值为519。2）苔草地上地下生物量、NPP均表现为春季高于秋季。3）受洲滩淹水时间影响，苔草生物量、NPP具有显著的年际差异， 2010～2011年度苔草NPP仅相当于2009～2010年度的625%；NPP的下降地上部分较地下部分更明显。4）鄱阳湖湿地苔草固碳潜力巨大，2个年度固碳量分别为1 92383，1 23121 gC/m2     

中国碳排放的因素分解模型及实证分析:1995-2004

能源消费是碳排放的主要来源。随着中国经济的快速发展,能源消费的急剧增长以及以煤为主的能源结构在短期内很难改变,因此,碳排放不可避免地会出现一定幅度的增加。本文基于碳排放量的基本等式,采用对数平均权重Divisia分解法（Logarithmic mean weight Divisia method,LMD）,建立中国人均碳排放的因素分解模型,定量分析了1995-2004年间,能源结构、能源效率和经济发展等因素的变化对中国人均碳排放的影响,结果显示经济发展对拉动中国人均碳排放的贡献率呈指数增长,而能源效率和能源结构对抑制中国人均碳排放的贡献率都呈倒“U”。这说明能源效率对抑制中国碳排放的作用在减弱,以煤为主的能源结构未发生根本性变化,能源效率和能源结构的抑制作用难以抵销由经济发展拉动的中国碳排放量增长。     

GHG Mitigation Potential and Cost in Tropical Forestry - Relative Role for Agroforestry

This paper summarizes studies of carbon mitigation potential (MP) and costs of forestry options in seven developing countries with a focus on the role of agroforestry. A common methodological approach known as comprehensive mitigation assessment process (COMAP) was used in each study to estimate the potential and costs between 2000 and 2030. The approach requires the projection of baseline and mitigation land-use scenarios derived from the demand for forest products and forestland for other uses such as agriculture and pasture. By using data on estimated carbon sequestration, emission avoidance, costs and benefits, the model enables one to estimate cost effectiveness indicators based on monetary benefit per t C, as well as estimates of total mitigation costs and potential when the activities are implemented at equilibrium level. The results show that about half the MP of 6.9 Gt C (an average of 223 Mt C per year) between 2000 and 2030 in the seven countries could be achieved at a negative cost, and the other half at costs not exceeding $100 per t C. Negative cost indicates that non-carbon revenue is sufficient to offset direct costs of about half of the options. The agroforestry options analyzed bear a significant proportion of the potential at medium to low cost per t C when compared to other options. The role of agroforestry in these countries varied between 6% and 21% of the MP, though the options are much more cost effective than most due to the low wage or opportunity cost of rural labor. Agroforestry options are attractive due to the large number of people and potential area currently engaged in agriculture, but they pose unique challenges for carbon and cost accounting due to the dispersed nature of agricultural activities in the tropics, as well as specific difficulties arising from requirements for monitoring, verification, leakage assessment and the establishment of credible baselines.