三唑酮的酸性、中性和碱性水解动力学研究

三唑酮在不同pH值和温度条件下水解动力学的测定结果表明:三唑酮在酸性条件下比较稳定,不易水解,但随体系pH值的升高,水解速度加快。温度升高有利于三唑酮的水解反应,酸性条件下水解活化能最大,温度升高对反应速率的影响最大。     

三唑酮的酸性、中性和碱性水解动力学研究

三唑酮在不同pH值和温度条件下水解动力学的测定结果表明：三唑酮在酸性条件下比较稳定，不易水解，但随体系pH值的升高，水解速度加快。温度升高有利于三唑酮的水解反应，酸性条件下水解活化能最大，温度升高对反应速率的影响最大。     

铁(Ⅲ)-丙酮酸盐配合物光解引发水中铬(Ⅵ)还原

初步研究了含有Fe(Ⅲ)及丙酮酸盐的溶液在高压汞灯照射下对铬(Ⅵ)的光还原反应．考察了溶液pH值、Fe(Ⅲ)浓度、丙酮酸钠浓度、Cr(Ⅵ)浓度对反应的影响．分析了光还原反应的动力学及反应机制．结果表明：铁-丙酮酸盐体系能光还原Cr(Ⅵ)；最佳pH为3．0；Cr(Ⅵ)光还原的初始速率随着加入的铁(Ⅲ)、丙酮酸盐、Cr(Ⅵ)初始浓度的增加而增加；实验条件下的表观动力学方程为：-dGCr(Ⅵ)／dt=0．021[Cr(Ⅵ)]0.39[Fe(Ⅲ)r1.05[CH3COCOONa]0.39；Fe(Ⅲ)-丙酮酸盐配合物光解产生的Fe(Ⅱ)是Cr(Ⅵ)的主要还原剂．     

异相草酸铁光降解五氯酚过程中的铁物种分配

草酸铁光化学体系在自然界中广泛存在,此体系可以内源生成过氧化氢,构成Fenton体系,产生羟基自由基(·OH),用于降解有机污染物.通过测定赤铁矿(α-Fe_2O_3)和针铁矿(α-Fe OOH)两种铁氧化物-草酸体系在光降解五氯酚(PCP)过程中草酸和pH的变化,计算反应过程中各种Fe(Ⅲ)和Fe(Ⅱ)物种的分配情况,分析影响体系活性的关键因素.研究表明,体系中的铁物种分配和pH通过影响体系的铁循环直接影响体系的反应活性.相同初始pH,不同草酸初始浓度下,高活性的Fe(Ⅱ)物种分配具有较大差异从而影响体系的铁循环速率和反应活性.不同初始pH,达到饱和吸附的相同草酸初始浓度下,高活性的Fe(Ⅱ)和Fe(Ⅲ)物种均为体系控制物种,而pH通过影响Fe(Ⅲ)的还原速率从而影响体系的铁循环速率和反应活性.     

Cu(Ⅱ)、Fe(Ⅲ)和Cr(Ⅲ)在弱酸性条件下对大肠杆菌的毒性和致毒机制

比较了弱酸性条件下Cu(Ⅱ)、Fe(Ⅲ)和Cr(Ⅲ)单独或加入抗坏血酸(L-AscA)对大肠杆菌(E.coli)的毒性,深入分析了Cu(Ⅱ)/L-AscA体系的特性;通过电子自旋共振(ESR)定量分析羟基自由基(.OH)浓度以分析其毒性机理.结果表明,pH 4.0下L-AscA促进了Cu(Ⅱ)、Fe(Ⅲ)而非Cr(Ⅲ)的毒性,三者毒性Cu(Ⅱ)>Cr(Ⅲ)>Fe(Ⅲ).通常被认为无毒的Cr(Ⅲ)却在0.2 mmol.L-1,pH 4.0时表现出了很高的杀菌率.与0.01%L-AscA共存时,Cu(Ⅱ)为200、20μmol.L-1和2、0.2μmol.L-1下,E.coli的存活率分别在30 min和2 h内迅速降至零,且该体系对自然水体中分离所得的其它7种菌株同样具有明显的制御作用.ESR结果表明L-AscA的加入使200μmol.L-1Cu(Ⅱ)反应体系的.OH浓度约提高两倍,.OH浓度呈Cu(Ⅱ)浓度依赖.但在Fe(Ⅲ)、Cr(Ⅲ)/L-AscA体系中未检测到.OH,表明三者对细胞的致毒机制存在明显差异.     

柠檬酸-Fe(Ⅱ)/K2S2O8对敌草隆降解的研究

研究了初始pH值为3.0时敌草隆在柠檬酸-Fe(Ⅱ)/K2S2O8体系中的降解行为.结果显示,0.1mmol·l-1敌草隆的最佳降解条件为:[K2S2O8]=2.0mmol·l-1,[Fe(Ⅱ)]=1.0mmol·l-1,[CA]=0.5mmol·l-1.在该条件下,敌草隆的降解符合一级反应动力学,半衰期为30.5min.此外,采用分子探针法鉴定了体系中产生的硫酸根自由基和羟基自由基.并采用液-质联用技术鉴定了敌草隆在柠檬酸-Fe(Ⅱ)/K2S2O8体系中的降解产物,探讨敌草隆在柠檬酸-Fe(Ⅱ)/K2S2O8体系中可能的降解机理.     

二氧化锰氧化降解双酚A的动力学

以室内实验方法,在25℃室温下,以二氧化锰为氧化剂,研究了pH4.12的水溶液中双酚A降解的反应动力学,并讨论了反应溶液的pH对反应动力学的影响.动力学研究采用了批处理实验方法和螺旋盖反应瓶.振荡器反应体系.结果表明,在无二氧化锰的条件下,双酚A的浓度在1周内检测没有明显的变化.在二氧化锰存在的条件下,双酚A对二氧化锰的氧化作用具有较强的反应感受性.pH一定的条件下,当二氧化锰相对过量时,在1小时之内,反应遵循准一级反应动力学,双酚A降解速率随其自身及二氧化锰浓度的增大而增大.随着反应的进行,双酚A的降解速率变慢.反应遵循的不是简单的准一级反应动力学而是复合的反应动力学.此外,随着溶液pH值由3.5升高至6.6,双酚A的降解速率显著下降.     

黑锰矿催化氧化Fe(Ⅱ)生成铁氧化物过程及影响因素

自然界中的锰氧化物常与铁氧化物交结伴生,其形成和转化过程相互影响. Mn(Ⅳ)氧化物与Fe(Ⅱ)反应过程已有较多研究,然而有氧环境中低价锰氧化物氧化Fe(Ⅱ)生成铁氧化物的过程尚缺乏系统研究.本工作以黑锰矿为例,研究了开放体系中Fe(Ⅱ)在低价氧化锰矿物表面的氧化行为,分析了Fe(Ⅱ)浓度、溶解氧以及pH对Fe(Ⅲ)氧化物形成的影响.结果表明,黑锰矿在氧化Fe(Ⅱ)形成针铁矿和纤铁矿的同时,自身被部分还原释放Mn(Ⅱ).当反应体系pH值为3.0时,溶解氧氧化Fe(Ⅱ)作用弱,主要为黑锰矿氧化Fe(Ⅱ)并在其表面生成针铁矿.当反应体系pH值升高至5.0,黑锰矿催化加速了溶解氧对低浓度(<5.0 mmol·L^-1)Fe(Ⅱ)的氧化并生成水铁矿,随后转化成纤铁矿和针铁矿;Fe(Ⅱ)浓度升高(>5.0 mmol·L^-1),反应初期Fe(Ⅱ)直接被黑锰矿氧化,形成了以针铁矿和少量纤铁矿组成的包覆层,并导致氧化速率减弱,而溶解氧在Fe(Ⅱ)后期氧化过程中发挥了主导作用.这些结果丰富了表生环境铁锰氧化物的形成与共生机理,为土壤矿物形成演化提供了...     

酸性条件下H+ - Cu2+在红壤表面反应的能量特征

研究了酸性条件下H -Cu2 在红壤表面反应动力学的能量特征,结果表明:酸性条件下Cu2 的吸附分为快反应和慢反应两个阶段.用一级动力学方程拟合,Cu2 的最大吸附量随酸度的增加而显著下降,随温度的升高提前达到平衡.用双常数方程描述Cu2 在吸附点位能量分布的不均匀性,用扩散速率常数b计算,活化能(Eb*)随酸度的增加而增加,Cu2 扩散需要克服的能障变大;ΔH*值为正,温度升高可促进Cu2 的扩散;ΔS*均为负值,表明吸附反应使体系的有序度增加.原液pH值为3.8和3.3时,流出液的pH值高于原液,这是由于土壤的缓冲作用、土壤表面质子化和硫酸根专性吸附释放的羟基中和;反应初期H 消耗是快反应过程,反应后期H 对矿物的溶蚀为速率控制步骤.     

整流电絮凝技术对缺氧地下水中As(Ⅲ)的原位修复

地下水中砷污染的原位修复治理对人类社会的可持续发展具有重要意义.本文研发了一种新型整流电絮凝反应体系,可实现对缺氧地下水As(Ⅲ)的原位修复.实验结果表明,最优操作条件为:电流密度为4.4 m A·cm~(-2),铁棒和MMO的阳极工作时间比值(TFe-anode/TMMO-anode)为1∶2,反应周期为24 s.在最优条件下,含有500μg·L~(-1)As(Ⅲ)的模拟地下水经过30 min电絮凝处理后砷的固定脱除效率达92%,总能耗为0.11 kW·hm~(-3).此外,水体中的HCO_3~-和PO_4~(3-)等无机阴离子对砷的固定具有抑制作用.在该反应体系内,电解生成的Fe(Ⅱ)与O2之间的氧化反应生成具有强氧化性的Fe(Ⅳ)可有效将As(Ⅲ)氧化成毒性较小且更易于固定脱除的As(Ⅴ),进而显著促进了砷在Fe(Ⅲ)絮凝沉淀作用下的固定脱除.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Representation of the world's biophysical conditions by the global protected area network

Protected areas (PAs) are often implemented without consideration of already existing PAs, which is likely to cause an overrepresentation of certain biophysical conditions. We assessed the representativeness of the current PA network with regard to the world's biophysical conditions to highlight which conditions are underprotected and where these conditions are located. We overlaid terrestrial and marine PAs with information on biophysical conditions (e.g., temperature, precipitation, and elevation) and then quantified the percentage of area covered by the PA network. For 1 variable at a time in the terrestrial realm, high temperature, low precipitation, and medium and very high elevation were underrepresented. For the marine realm, low and medium sea surface temperature (SST), medium and high sea surface salinity (SSS), and the deep sea were underrepresented. Overall, protection was evenly distributed for elevation across the terrestrial realm and SST across the marine realm. For 2 variables at a time, cold and very dry terrestrial environments had mostly low protection, which was also the case for low SST and low and medium SSS across most depths for marine environments. Low protection occurred mostly in the Sahara and the Arabian Peninsula for the terrestrial realm and along the Tropic of Capricorn and toward the poles for the marine realm. Although biodiversity measures are of prime importance for the design of PA networks, highlighting biophysical gaps in current PAs adds a frequently overlooked perspective. These gaps may weaken the potential of PAs to conserve biodiversity. Thus, our results may provide useful insights for researchers, practitioners, and policy makers to establish a more comprehensive global PA network.     

Quantitative composition of the defensive secretion ofBledius species (Coleoptera: Staphylinidae: Oxytelinae) is adapted to naturally occurring predators

Summary The adaptation of defensive secretions to their target organisms was examined for the abdominal gland secretions ofBledius furcatus, B. spectabilis andB. arenarius. Therefore the target organisms of the secretion of theseBledius species (i.e. their predators) had to be identified. At the collection sites examined these were the earwigLabidura riparia, the antCataglyphis bicolor, the flyLispe candicans, different carabids of the generaPogonus, Dichirotrichus, Dyschirius, Bembidion andCalathus and the wading birdsHaematopus ostralegus andCalidris alba. The secretion of the abdominal glands contains the toxin ptoluquinone dissolved in either-dodecalactone and 1-undecene (B. furcatus andB. spectabilis) or in octanoic acid and octyloctanoate (B. arenarius). The ratio of these solvents is species-specific. Application experiments using some of the natural insect predators (L. riparia, C. bicolor, Pogonus, Di. gustavii, Dyschirius) revealed that these solvent ratios provided a more effective deterrent than other possible ratios. Thus by combining the solvents in certain ratios, the capability of cuticular penetration and therefore the effectiveness of the defensive secretions are adapted to their natural targets.     

Democracy versus development: New urban debates

The politics of development includes subtexts of choice, as underpinned by community consensus (or lack of it), against the larger backdrop of a liberal democracy, with its intricate power structures that influence the choice of concepts and often lead to complicity rather than consent. A dilemma exists between the understanding of field-level practitioners and that of academics, whose understandings of progress differ. Progress can (and often does) imply long-term change across generations whereas development is often more a matter of crisis management and delivering tangible results to end-users. This makes it a bone of contention across political systems, irrespective of local or global dynamics. Development can emerge as a tool to be wielded for power and further political mileage at the expense of progress. Progress cannot be studied as a counterpoint to development as the sense of history is often missing in development interventions. Development tends to be piecemeal as its very logic often stems from the rationale of power. This is not to suggest, however, that development is only about politics; it is definitely more than the politics of everyday life and involves all of civil society that requires its critical and immediate attention. In this sense, it has become a priority for politicians with an underlying agenda designed to out-manouevre dissent and all statements of protest.     

A framework to measure the wildness of managed large vertebrate populations

As landscapes continue to fall under human influence through habitat loss and fragmentation, fencing is increasingly being used to mitigate anthropogenic threats and enhance the commercial value of wildlife. Subsequent intensification of management potentially erodes wildness by disembodying populations from landscape-level processes, thereby disconnecting species from natural selection. Tools are needed to measure the degree to which populations of large vertebrate species in formally protected and privately owned wildlife areas are self-sustaining and free to adapt. We devised a framework to measure such wildness based on 6 attributes relating to the evolutionary and ecological dynamics of vertebrates (space, disease and parasite resistance, exposure to predation, exposure to limitations and fluctuations of food and water supply, and reproduction). For each attribute, we set empirical, species-specific thresholds between 5 wildness states based on quantifiable management interventions. We analysed data from 205 private wildlife properties with management objectives spanning ecotourism to consumptive utilization to test the framework on 6 herbivore species representing a range of conservation statuses and commercial values. Wildness scores among species differed significantly, and the proportion of populations identified as wild ranged from 12% to 84%, which indicates the tool detected site-scale differences both among populations of different species and populations of the same species under different management regimes. By quantifying wildness, this framework provides practitioners with standardized measurement units that link biodiversity with the sustainable use of wildlife. Applications include informing species management plans at local scales; standardizing the inclusion of managed populations in red-list assessments; and providing a platform for certification and regulation of wildlife-based economies. Applying this framework may help embed wildness as a normative value in policy and mitigate the shifting baseline of what it means to truly conserve a species.     

Sexual Predators,Energy Development,and Conservation in Greater Yellowstone

Abstract: In the United States, as elsewhere, a growing debate pits national energy policy and homeland security against biological conservation. In rural communities the extraction of fossil fuels is often encouraged because of the employment opportunities it offers, although the concomitant itinerant workforce is often associated with increased wildlife poaching. We explored possible positive and negative factors associated with energy extraction in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE), an area known for its national parks, intact biological diversity, and some of the New World's longest terrestrial migrations. Specifically, we asked whether counties with different economies—recreation (ski), agrarian (ranching or farming), and energy extractive (petroleum)—differed in healthcare (gauged by the abundance of hospital beds) and in the frequency of sexual predators. The absolute and relative frequency of registered sex offenders grew approximately two to three times faster in areas reliant on energy extraction. Healthcare among counties did not differ. The strong conflation of community dishevel, as reflected by in‐migrant sexual predators, and ecological decay in Greater Yellowstone is consistent with patterns seen in similar systems from Ecuador to northern Canada, where social and environmental disarray exist around energy boomtowns. In our case, that groups (albeit with different aims) mobilized campaigns to help maintain the quality of rural livelihoods by protecting open space is a positive sign that conservation can matter, especially in the face of rampant and poorly executed energy extraction projects. Our findings further suggest that the public and industry need stronger regulatory action to instill greater vigilance when and where social factors and land conversion impact biological systems.     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Comparison of the insecticidal effects of water extracted and intact aromatic plants onAcanthoscelides obtectus,a bruchid beetle pest of kidney beans

Summary Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say) is one of the most damaging pests of kidney beans,Phaseolus vulgaris L. worldwide. However, aromatic plants from the families Lamiaceae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae and Poaceae can protect kidney beans by direct or delayed insecticidal effect, through increased adult mortality and inhibition of beetle reproduction (both oviposition and adult emergence). The efficiency of hydrodistillated and intact plants fromThymus vulgaris andT. serpyllum, Mentha piperata, Rosmarinus officinalis, Satureia hortensis, Eucalyptus globulus, Laurus nobilis, Origanum vulgare, andCymbopogon nardus was compared. For both extracts,Origanum vulgare had the best effect. The insecticidal effect was induced by more than the essential oils because no significant difference was noticed between distilled and intact plants extract. Inhibition of reproduction was particularly important. These results suggest that lipidic as well as non lipidic, allelochemicals, such as phenolics, or non-protein amino-acids, or flavonoids may be involved in the toxicity of aromatic plants to this beetle.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.