The oil and gas industry,the Offshore Installation Manager (OIM) and the management of emergencies - Changes necessary to achieve effective competence assessment of OIMs in controlling emergencies

Within the UK offshore oil and gas industry all installations require to be under the charge of a ‘competent’ installation manager in accordance with the Offshore Installations and Pipeline Works (Management and Administration) Regulations (MAR) 1995. The Offshore Installation Manager (OIM) is responsible for the safety of all persons onboard and within 500 m of an installation. Should an incident arise, the OIM performs one of the most critical roles within the offshore industry - management of the response to the emergency to mitigate and make safe the installation to secure a place of safety for persons onboard or organise their safe evacuation. The emergency response also includes limiting the loss of hydrocarbons to the environment.Research at the University of Aberdeen has identified 8 potential barriers to the effective competence assessment of OIMs in controlling emergencies. These underlying barriers are a consequence of current UK legislation and industry practices in the assessment of OIM competence and result from:

• •multiple definitions of competence,
• •competence assessment predominantly by observation,
• •lack of specific and unambiguous competence requirements for trainers and assessors,
• •complexity in UK legislation and complicated interpretation of terms,
• •lack of statutory competence requirements for OIMs in controlling emergencies,
• •lack of ownership of OIM competence and competence assessment,
• •complex interactions across multiple UK Government departments, and
• •lack of regulation and independent audit of the competence assessment process of OIMs in controlling emergencies.

The potential barriers were identified by qualitative analysis of key documentation, including legislation, using a critical hermeneutic approach. Hermeneutics has historically been used to analyse texts within the domains of theology, business and law. It arguably, however, represents a powerful approach to the study of documents within the engineering domain and the offshore oil and gas industry.This paper discusses the identified potential barriers, research conclusions and recommendations and represents the culmination of three years of doctoral research investigating the competence assessment of OIMs in controlling emergencies within the offshore oil and gas industry. The research, in particular, is relevant to Duty Holders within the offshore industry, safety engineers and UK Government departments.     

Potential barriers to the competence assessment of Offshore Installation Managers: A hermeneutic perspective.

The Offshore Installation Manager (OIM) performs one of the most critical roles within the UK offshore Oil and Gas Industry. The OIM is responsible for the safety and well-being of all persons on-board and within 500 m of the installation whilst operating within a complex environment where multiple organisations and stakeholders interact. The persistence of major incidents in the industry highlights the importance of OIM competence in controlling emergencies, consequently the research aims to identify the potential barriers that can limit or prevent the proficient competence assessment of an OIM in this situation. The OIM role is investigated by qualitative analysis of key documents using hermeneutics to interpret text and to identify the potential barriers to effective competence assessment. Such analysis has historically been used within the domains of theology, business and law. Hermeneutics takes into account the cultural, historical and social environment at the time of issue of the document, and semiotics, i.e. the study of signs and symbols, their use and interpretation.Analysis is ongoing, however the six potential barriers to the effective competence assessment of OIMs in controlling emergencies identified to date are discussed. These barriers are associated with the multiple definitions of competence that exist in the UK and worldwide; the current predominance of competence assessment by observation; the lack of definitive competence requirements for trainers and assessors; the complexity in UK legislation and the interaction between UK Government departments and concerns associated with goal setting legislation when applied to competence assessment.The output from the research will assist industry Duty Holders improve the competence assessment of their appointed OIMs and allow safety engineers to consider the probable competence of an OIM in a given environment at a given point in time.     

Site managers and safety leadership in the offshore oil and gas industry

Management commitment to safety is recognised as a fundamental component of an organisation's safety culture (Reason, 1997. Managing the Risks of Organisational Accidents. Ashgate, Aldershot, UK). However, the role and experiences of site managers in relation to safety have rarely been examined. A survey questionnaire was conducted of 200 Offshore Installation Managers (OIMs) from 157 offshore oil and gas installations belonging to 36 organisations operating on the United Kingdom Continental Shelf. The questionnaire gathered data relating to OIMs' level of experience and style of leadership as well as their knowledge and experience of safety and leadership within the industry. The aims of the study are twofold. The first aim is to investigate the relationship between managers' level of experience and style of leadership with their safety attitudes and behaviour. The second aim is to investigate managers' perceptions of best practice in safety leadership and their beliefs about the key outstanding safety issues. Findings suggest that experience is not the dominant factor in determining leadership style or attitudes to safety, however, the less experienced OIMs and those with more directive styles of leadership were found to overestimate their ability to influence and motivate the workforce. It seems that although managers are aware of best practice in safety leadership, they do not always act in ways consistent with this. They report having considerable difficulty in motivating and controlling some safety crucial aspects of workforce behaviour such as getting workers to accept ownership of safety and getting workers to report near misses. In terms of outstanding safety issues, it appears that improvements still need to be made in a number of areas such as the standardisation of safety culture; the harmonisation of safety practices and procedures across the industry; improved workforce competency and increased workforce involvement in safety activities and decision making.     

海上平台事故应急演练评估方法研究

针对目前我国海上平台事故应急演练缺乏有效评估体系的现状,结合海上平台事故应急演练典型示例,运用“事故应急指挥系统（ICS）”基本理念,对整个应急演练过程进行系统分析,从人员安全、资产保护、环境保护、企业声誉等4个方面搭建应急演练评估框架。采用层次分析法构建计算模型,合理设置评估指标权重,最终建立了1套具有海洋石油行业特点的应急演练评估指标体系,并选取国内1个海上平台事故应急演练进行了应用分析。研究结果表明:构建的演练评估指标体系及评估方法能较好地应用于海上平台事故应急演练过程,进而在演练评估结果的基础上,实现应急演练的持续改进。     

Human error risk analysis in offshore emergencies

Human factors play an important role in the completion of emergency procedures. Human factors analysis is rooted in the concept that humans make errors, and the frequency and consequences of these errors are related to work environment, work culture, and procedures. This can be accounted for in the design of equipment, structures, processes, and procedures. As stress increases, the likelihood of human error also increases. Offshore installations are among the harshest and most stressful work environments in the world. The consequences of human error in an offshore emergency can be severe.A method has been developed to evaluate the risk of human error during offshore emergency musters. Obtaining empirical data was a difficult process, and often little information could be drawn from it. This was especially an issue in determining the consequences of failure to complete muster steps. Based on consequences from past incidents in the offshore industry and probabilities of human error, the level of risk and its tolerability are determined. Using the ARAMIS (accidental risk assessment methodology for industries) approach to safety barrier analysis, a protocol for choosing and evaluating safety measures to reduce and re-assess the risk was developed. The method is assessed using a case study, the Ocean Odyssey incident, to determine its effectiveness. The results of the methodology agree with the analysis of survivor experiences of the Ocean Odyssey incident.     

Risk assessment in the offshore industry

This paper describes the implementation and use of risk assessment in the offshore industry in relation to safety aspects — safety to people's life and health, as well as environment and property. Although risk assessments may be based on both qualitative and quantitative methods, the main focus here will be on quantitative risk assessments (QRA). The development of offshore QRA has been lead by a mutual influence and interaction between the regulatory authorities for the UK and Norwegian sectors of the North Sea as well as the oil companies operating here. The experience from this area has been the main basis during the writing of this paper.     

Allocation of performance shaping factors in the risk assessment of an offshore installation

Offshore oil production is one of the most important human productive activities. There are many risks associated with the process of constructing a subsea well, pumping oil to the platform, and transporting it to refineries via underwater pipes or oil tankers. All actions performed by workers in those operations are influenced by specific working conditions, involving the use of complex systems. Contextual factors such as high noise, low and high temperatures and hazardous chemicals are considered to be contributors to unsafe human actions in accident analysis and also give a basis for assessing human factors in safety analysis. Some failure modes are particularly dangerous and can result in severe accidents and damage to humans, the environment and material assets. Fires and explosions on oil rigs are some of the most devastating types of offshore accidents and can result in long-term consequences. The most typical root causes related to accidents include equipment failure, human error, environmental factors, work organization, training and, communication, among others. The principal objective of this study is to propose a methodological framework to identify the factors that affect the performance of operators of an offshore unit for oil processing and treatment. In this phase, an ergonomics approach based on operators' work analysis is used as a supporting tool. After identification of factors that affect the performance of operators, a decision-making model based on AHP (analytic hierarchy process) is applied to rank and weight the principal performance shaping factors (PSFs) that influence safe operations. The next step involves the use of the SHELLO model to group the main PSFs in elements named software, hardware, environment, liveware and organization. In the last phase, a relevant accident that occurred aboard a floating production storage and offloading (FPSO) vessel is analyzed. The allocation process of the factors that affect the operator's performance in risk assessment was developed through fuzzy logic and the ISO 17776 standard.     

Mitigation performance of the process protection system on the accident consequences of H2S-containing natural gas release and explosion

Toxic loads and explosion overpressure loads pose grave threats to the offshore oil and gas industry. Many safety measures are adopted to prevent and mitigate the adverse impacts caused by toxic loads and explosion overpressure loads. As a general safety barrier, the process protection system has been widely used but rarely evaluated. In order to assess the barrier ability, the mitigation performance of the process protection system is concerned in this study. Firstly, several chain accidents of H₂S-containing natural gas leakage and explosion are simulated by varying the response time of the process protection system with CFD code FLACS. Qualitative assessment is conducted based on the variation of the dangerous load profiles. Furthermore, the quantitative assessment of the mitigation performance is accomplished by considering its ability in reducing the probability of fatality. Emergency evacuation and no emergency evacuation are considered respectively in the quantitative assessment. The results prove that the process protection system takes effect on mitigating the toxic impact and explosion overpressure impact. The results also demonstrate that although the emergency evacuation may result in a severer explosion load to the operator, the process protection system can mitigate the adverse impacts regardless of whether the emergency evacuation is conducted or not.     

A methodology to model causal relationships on offshore safety assessment focusing on human and organizational factors

INTRODUCTION: Focusing on people and organizations, this paper aims to contribute to offshore safety assessment by proposing a methodology to model causal relationships. METHOD: The methodology is proposed in a general sense that it will be capable of accommodating modeling of multiple risk factors considered in offshore operations and will have the ability to deal with different types of data that may come from different resources. Reason's "Swiss cheese" model is used to form a generic offshore safety assessment framework, and Bayesian Network (BN) is tailored to fit into the framework to construct a causal relationship model. The proposed framework uses a five-level-structure model to address latent failures within the causal sequence of events. The five levels include Root causes level, Trigger events level, Incidents level, Accidents level, and Consequences level. To analyze and model a specified offshore installation safety, a BN model was established following the guideline of the proposed five-level framework. A range of events was specified, and the related prior and conditional probabilities regarding the BN model were assigned based on the inherent characteristics of each event. RESULTS: This paper shows that Reason's "Swiss cheese" model and BN can be jointly used in offshore safety assessment. On the one hand, the five-level conceptual model is enhanced by BNs that are capable of providing graphical demonstration of inter-relationships as well as calculating numerical values of occurrence likelihood for each failure event. Bayesian inference mechanism also makes it possible to monitor how a safety situation changes when information flow travel forwards and backwards within the networks. On the other hand, BN modeling relies heavily on experts' personal experiences and is therefore highly domain specific. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: "Swiss cheese" model is such a theoretic framework that it is based on solid behavioral theory and therefore can be used to provide industry with a roadmap for BN modeling and implications. A case study of the collision risk between a Floating Production, Storage and Offloading (FPSO) unit and authorized vessels caused by human and organizational factors (HOFs) during operations is used to illustrate an industrial application of the proposed methodology.     

Offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships

PROBLEM: Tragic marine and offshore accidents have caused serious consequences including loss of lives, loss of property, and damage of the environment. METHOD: A proactive, risk-based "goal setting" regime is introduced to the marine and offshore industries to increase the level of safety. DISCUSSION: To maximize marine and offshore safety, risks need to be modeled and safety-based decisions need to be made in a logical and confident way. Risk modeling and decision-making tools need to be developed and applied in a practical environment. SUMMARY: This paper describes both the offshore safety case approach and formal safety assessment of ships in detail with particular reference to the design aspects. The current practices and the latest development in safety assessment in both the marine and offshore industries are described. The relationship between the offshore safety case approach and formal ship safety assessment is described and discussed. Three examples are used to demonstrate both the offshore safety case approach and formal ship safety assessment. The study of risk criteria in marine and offshore safety assessment is carried out. The recommendations on further work required are given. IMPACT ON INDUSTRY: This paper gives safety engineers in the marine and offshore industries an overview of the offshore safety case approach and formal ship safety assessment. The significance of moving toward a risk-based "goal setting" regime is given.     

城市综合防灾应急能力可拓评价模型构建及应用

城市综合防灾应急能力可以衡量一个城市在面临灾害时的抗御能力及恢复能力,并且是辅助城市灾害决策的重要依据.以城市灾害发生时及其后所展开的各种紧急救援工作所涉及的城市防灾建设状况作为评价依据,按照一定的指标选取原则,构建出包括消防能力、避难安置能力、医疗救护能力、物资供应能力、治安防护能力、环卫能力、协调能力7个1级评价指标及17个2级评价指标的指标体系.根据国际通用或相关规范规定的救灾资源配置标准进行等级划分,利用可拓学理论及其特点建立可拓评价模型.并将评价模型应用于长沙城市综合防灾应急能力的评价,得出长沙市城市综合防灾应急能力等级为"差",以及长沙需要重点加强的指标:消防车数量、人均避难面积、城市综合防灾管理体系完备度.     

Shelter-in-place risk assessment for high-pressure natural gas wells with hydrogen sulphide and its application in emergency management

This paper provides a risk assessment method of sheltering in-place for high-pressure natural gas wells with hydrogen sulphide. In this paper, the shelter-in-place risk is estimated by integrating the health consequences of an individual taking one kind of emergency response to the emergency orders of sheltering in place from the emergency decision makers and the probability of the corresponding emergency response action. The probability of the corresponding emergency response action in the proposed method is estimated through the accident probability analysis and the probability analysis of taking a certain response action. The health consequence estimation is based on air exchange rate test of the shelter buildings as well as accident consequence calculation. The evaluation of shelter-in-place risks based on “as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP)” guidelines was employed to provide suggestions for emergency management under both normal conditions and off normal conditions. A case study of risk assessment of sheltering in the local residential houses in Xuanhan County of Sichuan Province, China was taken as an example to illustrate the proposed risk assessment process of shelter-in-place and its application in the decision-making process for emergency management.     

基于情景构建技术的应急准备能力评估方法

为了提高应急准备能力评估结果的可靠性,提出一种基于情景构建技术的应急准备能力评估方法。运用情景构建技术,明确所构建的情景事件中的主要应急任务;提出应急准备能力评估指标体系,将完成每项应急任务所需的目标能力和现实能力相比较,采用加权求和的计算方法,评估区域应对该类情景事件的应急准备能力,并进行实例验证。结果表明:评估指标体系结构合理,评估方法可行,可提升应急准备能力评估的针对性,对区域应急准备能力的提高具有指导意义。     

突发事件应急演练评估方法、技术及系统研究

近些年,随着我国国民经济的快速发展,安全与应急问题也日益凸显,为了应对 这些问题,各级政府和企业广泛开展各种类型的突发事件应急演练,取得了一定的效果 。但由于应急演练评估缺少操作层面的方法与技术支持,使应急演练的评估与相关标准 规范脱节,往往流于形式。针对此类问题,通过对国内外应急演练评估相关标准规范的 梳理与分析构建应急演练评估业务主线,以“情景构建”方法指导构建应急演练评估指 标体系,以AHP算法和软件开发技术实现“应急演练评估模型库”及相关演练评估系统 ,最终为应急演练评估工作的实际开展提供一套从理论方法到技术系统的科学、合理且 具有操作性的整体解决方案。     

海上生产设施远程监控和管理系统的建设探讨

针对海洋石油行业面临的海上作业设施如何安全有效监控及管理的问题,从实际的安全生产管理需求出发,结合通信网络链路及传输特点,采用先进的远程监控技术和海洋石油应急管理理念,设计开发了海上生产设施远程监控和管理系统平台,并论述了总体框架、软硬件结构及发展趋势。系统已经作为保障安全生产的重要手段应用于海上作业平台及船舶运输,提高了安全生产管理水平,并取得了很好的效果。     

化工园区应急管理模式研究

在化工园区特点和危险性分析的基础上,建立"风险防控、应急队伍、应急平台、应急组织、应急预案、运行机制"的化工园区应急管理模式;探讨加强化工园区应急管理的对策措施;提出以重大危险源普查与监控、区域风险评价和安全规划为重点,构建风险防控与管理体系;增强包括公安消防特勤队、特种工程抢险队、医疗救护队在内的化工园区应急救援队伍的处置能力;依托园区现行管理体制完善应急组织体制及其运行机制;完善化工园区应急预案体系等。     

Risk perception by offshore workers on UK oil and gas platforms

This paper reports the first investigation of risk perception by workers on offshore oil and gas installations on the UK Continental Shelf, following changes in offshore safety legislation in the wake of the Piper Alpha disaster in 1988. The Offshore Safety Case regulations (Health and Safety Executive, 1992, A Guide to the Offshore Installations (Safety Case) Regulations) put the onus on the operator to identify the major hazards and to reduce the risks to As Low As is Reasonably Practicable (ALARP). The regulations specifically state that Quantitative Risk Assessments (QRA) must be used when preparing the Safety Case. However, people do not use QRA when making everyday judgements about risk; they make subjective judgements known as risk perceptions, which are influenced by a number of different factors. This study was designed to complement the extensive QRA calculations that have already been carried out in the development of Safety Cases. The aim was to measure subjective risk perception in offshore personnel and examine how this relates to the more objective risk data available, namely accident records and QRA calculations. This paper describes the Offshore Risk Perception Questionnaire developed to collect the data and reports on UK offshore workers' perceptions of the risks associated with major and minor hazards, work tasks and other activities aboard production platforms.     

During-incident process assessment in emergency management: Concept and strategy

An incident is normally composed of three stages: pre-incident, during-incident and post-incident. The assessment is a prominent composition in the lifecycle of emergency management for the purpose of quick and effective response. Present-day assessment methods mainly concern the pre-incident risk evaluation and the post-incident loss evaluation. However, during-incident process assessment is of crucial importance to assist the decision-making in emergency response and eventually achieve the goals of emergency management. This paper analyzes the influencing factors of during-incident process assessment and proposes a conceptual model of assessment. Three during-incident process assessment strategies, namely, “mitigability”, “rescuability”, and recoverability are illustrated which quantitatively characterize the evolution of incidents and corresponding responses, and hence contribute to appropriate decisions in practical applications.