Impact of building facades and ground heating on wind flow and pollutant transport in street canyons

This paper investigates the impacts of building facades and ground heating on the wind flow and pollutant transport in street canyons using the computational fluid dynamic (CFD) technique. Street canyons of H/W (H representing the building height and W the street width) varied from 0.1 to 2, which covered the basic flow regimes of skimming flow (H/W=1 or 2), wake interference flow (H/W=0.5), and isolated roughness flow (H/W=0.1), were examined in a series of sensitivity tests. Heating that occurred on different surfaces, including ground surface and building façades, posed considerable effects on the street canyon wind flow and pollutant transport compared with those under isothermal conditions. The CFD results showed that the mechanically induced wind flow and pollutant transport were complicated by the buoyancy under temperature stratification. Individual street canyons of different H/W and surface-heating scenarios exhibited their unique wind flow structure and pollutant transport behaviors. Two counter-rotating vortices were calculated in the street canyons of H/W=1, in which the zone of higher pollutant concentration under isothermal conditions was switched from the leeward side to the windward side. In the street canyon of H/W=2, the recirculating wind pattern was perturbed by surface heating that led to the development of either one primary vortex or three closely coupled vortices. Because of the complicated wind structure, the zones of higher pollutant concentration located either on the leeward or windward ground level were subjected to the surface-heating scenarios. Only two vortices were developed inside the street canyon of H/W=0.5. The large primary vortex, centered inside the street canyon, extended above the roof level of the street canyon. Meanwhile, a small secondary vortex was found at the ground-level windward corner whose size results as a function of surface-heating configurations. Finally, in the street canyon of H/W=0.1, an isolated clockwise-rotating vortex was developed beside the leeward building while the wind in the windward side blew in the prevailing wind direction. As a result, air pollutant emitted at the street centerline was unlikely to be carried into the leeward vortex. Instead, it was dispersed rapidly on the windward side before being removed from the street canyon.     

Numerical modeling on air quality in an urban environment with changes of the aspect ratio and wind direction

Due to heavy traffic emissions within an urban environment, air quality during the last decade becomes worse year by year and hazard to public health. In the present work, numerical modeling of flow and dispersion of gaseous emissions from vehicle exhaust in a street canyon were investigated under changes of the aspect ratio and wind direction. The three-dimensional flow and dispersion of gaseous pollutants were modeled using a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model which was numerically solved using Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations. The diffusion flow field in the atmospheric boundary layer within the street canyon was studied for different aspect ratios (W/H?=?1/2, 3/4, and 1) and wind directions (θ?=?90°, 112.5°, 135°, and 157.5°). The numerical models were validated against wind tunnel results to optimize the turbulence model. The numerical results agreed well with the wind tunnel results. The simulation demonstrated that the minimum concentration at the human respiration height within the street canyon was on the windward side for aspect ratios W/H?=?1/2 and 1 and wind directions θ?=?112.5°, 135°, and 157.5°. The pollutant concentration level decreases as the wind direction and aspect ratio increase. The wind velocity and turbulence intensity increase as the aspect ratio and wind direction increase.     

A concentration correction scheme for Lagrangian particle model and its application in street canyon air dispersion modelling

Pollutant dispersion in street canyons with various configurations was simulated by discharging a large number of particles into the computation domain after developing a time-dependent wind field. Trajectory of the released particles was predicted using a Lagrangian particle model developed in an earlier study. A concentration correction scheme, based on the concept of “visibility”, was adopted for the Lagrangian particle model to correct the calculated pollutant concentration field in street canyons. The corrected concentrations compared favourably with those from wind tunnel experiments and a linear relationship between the computed concentrations and wind tunnel data were found. The developed model was then applied to four simulations to test for the suitability of the correction scheme and to study pollutant distribution in street canyons with different configurations. For those cases with obstacles presence in the computation domain, the correction scheme gives more reasonable results compared with the one without using it. Different flow regimes are observed in the street canyons, which depend on building configurations. A counter-clockwise rotating vortex may appear in a two-building case with wind flow from left to right, causing lower pollutant concentration at the leeward side of upstream building and higher concentration at the windward side of downstream building. On the other hand, a stable clockwise rotating vortex is formed in the street canyon with multiple identical buildings, resulting in poor natural ventilation in the street canyon. Moreover, particles emitted in the downstream canyon formed by buildings with large height-to-width ratios will be transported to upstream canyons.     

Effects of Strength and Position of Pollutant Source on Pollutant Dispersion Within an Urban Street Canyon

A two-dimensional numerical model for simulating airflow and pollutant dispersion inside an urban street canyon was first developed using the FLUENT code, and then it was validated against a wind tunnel experiment. Then the effects of strength and position of pollutant sources on pollutant dispersion within an urban street canyon were investigated numerically. The numerical results showed that the dimensionless pollutant concentrations within the urban street canyon were independent from the source strength. The results also revealed that the pollutant distributions inside the urban street canyon with a two-lane road were influenced significantly by the positions of the two sources: 1) the closer the two sources were to the street center of the canyon, the lower the pollutant concentrations on the leeward wall and at the human respiration level in the leeward footpath became; 2) the pollutant concentrations on the windward wall and at the human respiration level in the windward footpath were not sensitive to the locations of the two sources as long as the source on the windward lane was situated outside the small recirculation zone at the bottom corner of the canyon windward wall; 3) the pollutant concentrations on the lower parts of the windward and leeward walls as well as in the two footpaths increased greatly when the two sources were moved from outside into the small recirculation zones.     

Influence of trees on the dispersion of pollutants in an urban street canyon—Experimental investigation of the flow and concentration field

Flow field and concentration measurements have been performed in an idealized model of an urban street canyon with one row of trees arranged along the center axis. The model was set up in an atmospheric boundary layer wind tunnel and the approach flow was directed perpendicular to the street axis. A line source embedded in the bottom of the street was used to release tracer gas for the simulation of traffic exhaust emissions. Trees with spherical crowns were modeled and positioned inside the street canyon, varying crown diameter, crown permeability, trunk height and tree spacing. Traffic-induced turbulence was simulated by rotating belts with thin plates. Concentrations were measured at the facades of the street canyon. For small tree crowns, only little changes in concentration were measured, however, increasing crown diameters led to increasing concentrations at the leeward street canyon wall associated with a reduction of local concentrations at the windward wall. For some cases, a variation of trunk height led to a modification of the concentration pattern on the walls. Increasing the tree spacing resulted in a noticeable concentration decrease. When compared to the situation with standing (but emitting) traffic, the traffic-induced turbulence by two-way car movements always contributed to a more homogenous concentration field inside the street canyon yielding to reduced mean concentration levels.     

A field study of factors influencing the concentrations of a traffic-related pollutant in the vicinity of a complex urban junction

The paper describes a field study focused on the dispersion of a traffic-related pollutant within an area close to a busy intersection between two street canyons in Central London. Simultaneous measurements of airflow, traffic flow and carbon monoxide concentrations ([CO]) are used to explore the causes of spatial variability in [CO] over a full range of background wind directions. Depending on the roof-top wind direction, evidence of both flow channelling and recirculation regimes were identified from data collected within the main canyon and the intersection. However, at the intersection, the merging of channelled flows from the canyons increased the flow complexity and turbulence intensity. These features, coupled with the close proximity of nearby queuing traffic in several directions, led to the highest overall time-average measured [CO] occurring at the intersection. Within the main street canyon, the data supported the presence of a helical flow regime for oblique roof-top flows, leading to increased [CO] on the canyon leeward side. Predominant wind directions led to some locations having significantly higher diurnal average [CO] due to being mostly on the canyon leeward side during the study period. For all locations, small changes in the background wind direction could cause large changes in the in-street mean wind angle and local turbulence intensity, implying that dispersion mechanisms would be highly sensitive to small changes in above roof flows. During peak traffic flow periods, concentrations within parallel side streets were approximately four times lower than within the main canyon and intersection which has implications for controlling personal exposure. Overall, the results illustrate that pollutant concentrations can be highly spatially variable over even short distances within complex urban geometries, and that synoptic wind patterns, traffic queue location and building topologies all play a role in determining where pollutant hot spots occur.     

Measurement and three-dimensional modeling of airflow and pollutant dispersion in an undersea traffic tunnel

Airflow and pollutant dispersion in a cross-harbor traffic tunnel were experimentally and numerically studied. Concentrations of the gaseous pollutants CO, NOx, and total hydrocarbons (THC) at three axial locations in the tunnel, together with traffic flow rate, traffic speed, and types of vehicle were measured. Three-dimensional (3D) turbulent flow and dispersion of air pollutants in the tunnel were modeled and solved numerically using the finite volume method. Traffic emissions were modeled accordingly as banded line sources along the tunnel floor. The results reveal that cross-sectional concentrations are nonuniformly distributed and that concentrations rise with downstream distance. The piston effect of vehicles alone can provide 9-23% dilution of air pollutants in the tunnel, compounded to a 23-74% dilution effect according to the ventilation condition.     

Measurement and Three-Dimensional Modeling of Airflow and Pollutant Dispersion in an Undersea Traffic Tunnel

Abstract

Airflow and pollutant dispersion in a cross-harbor traffic tunnel were experimentally and numerically studied. Concentrations of the gaseous pollutants CO, NO_x, and total hydrocarbons (THC) at three axial locations in the tunnel, together with traffic flow rate, traffic speed, and types of vehicle were measured. Three-dimensional (3D) turbulent flow and dispersion of air pollutants in the tunnel were modeled and solved numerically using the finite volume method. Traffic emissions were modeled accordingly as banded line sources along the tunnel floor. The results reveal that cross-sectional concentrations are nonuniformly distributed and that concentrations rise with downstream distance. The piston effect of vehicles alone can provide 9–23% dilution of air pollutants in the tunnel, compounded to a 23–74% dilution effect according to the ventilation condition.     

Strategic guidelines for street canyon geometry to achieve sustainable street air quality

This paper is concerned with the motion of air within the urban street canyon and is directed towards a deeper understanding of pollutant dispersion with respect to various simple canyon geometries and source positions. Taking into account the present days typical urban configurations, three principal flow regimes “isolated roughness flow”, “skimming flow” and “wake interference flow” (Boundary Layer Climates, 2nd edition, Methuen, London) and their corresponding pollutant dispersion characteristics are studied for various canopies aspect ratios, namely relative height (h₂/h₁), canyon height to width ratio (h/w) and canyon length to height ratio (l/h). A field-size canyon has been analyzed through numerical simulations using the standard k-ε turbulence closure model. It is found that the pollutant transport and diffusion is strongly dependent upon the type of flow regime inside the canyon and exchange between canyon and the above roof air. Some rules of thumbs have been established to get urban canyon geometries for efficient dispersion of pollutants.     

Strategic guidelines for street canyon geometry to achieve sustainable street air quality

This paper is concerned with the motion of air within the urban street canyon and is directed towards a deeper understanding of pollutant dispersion with respect to various simple canyon geometries and source positions. Taking into account the present days typical urban configurations, three principal flow regimes “isolated roughness flow”, “skimming flow” and “wake interference flow” (Boundary Layer Climates, 2nd edition, Methuen, London) and their corresponding pollutant dispersion characteristics are studied for various canopies aspect ratios, namely relative height (h₂/h₁), canyon height to width ratio (h/w) and canyon length to height ratio (l/h). A field-size canyon has been analyzed through numerical simulations using the standard k-ε turbulence closure model. It is found that the pollutant transport and diffusion is strongly dependent upon the type of flow regime inside the canyon and exchange between canyon and the above roof air. Some rules of thumbs have been established to get urban canyon geometries for efficient dispersion of pollutants.     

Application of a Three-Layer Photochemical Box Model in an Athens Street Canyon

ABSTRACT

The aim of this paper is to show that a photochemical box model could describe the air pollution diurnal profiles within a typical street canyon in the city of Athens. As sophisticated three-dimensional dispersion models are computationally expensive and they cannot serve to simulate pollution levels in the scale of an urban street canyon, a suitably modified three-layer photochemical box model was applied. A street canyon of Athens with heavy traffic was chosen to apply the aforementioned model. The model was used to calculate pollutant concentrations during two days with meteorological conditions favoring pollutant accumulation. Road traffic emissions were calculated based on existing traffic load measurements. Meteorological data, as well as various pollutant concentrations, in order to compare with the model results, were provided by available measurements. The calculated concentrations were found to be in good agreement with measured concentration levels and show that, when traffic load and traffic composition data are available, this model can be used to predict pollution episodes. It is noteworthy that high concentrations persisted, even after additional traffic restriction measures were taken on the second day because of the high pollution levels.     

On the correlation of air and pollutant exchange for street canyons in combined wind-buoyancy-driven flow

The ventilation and pollutant transport in a two-dimensional (2D) street canyon of building-height-to-street-width (aspect) ratio h/b = 1 under different unstable stratifications were examined. To characterize the combined wind-buoyancy-driven flow and pollutant transport at different Richardson number Ri, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations with the Renormalization Group (RNG) k ? ε turbulence model was adopted. Unlike the isothermal condition, a secondary recirculation is initiated at the ground-level windward corner of the street canyon once the unstable stratification is switched on (Ri < 0). It traps the ground-level pollutant leading to elevated pollutant concentration there. As Ri further decreases, the enlarging secondary recirculation enables direct pollutant removal from its core to the shear layer that offsets the ground-level pollutant accumulation. The ventilation and pollutant removal performance under different unstable stratifications are compared by the air (ACH) and pollutant (PCH) exchange rates, and pollutant retention time (τ). Both the mean and turbulent components of ACH are found to increase with decreasing Ri, suggesting that unstable stratification promotes ventilation in street canyons. Moreover, the CFD results agree well with our theoretical model that ACH² varies linearly with Ri. Turbulent transport originally dominates the pollutant removal under isothermal condition. However, progressive domination of pollutant removal by mean wind can be observed with decreasing stability (decreasing Ri from 0 to ?10.6). The critical value is estimated to be Ri = ?8, below which mean wind is the major pollutant removal carrier. Reduction in τ is also observed with decreasing Ri. Hence, in unstable stratification, pollutant resides shorter time in the street canyon compared with its isothermal counterpart, and the ventilation and pollutant removal are more favorable.     

Removal of lead and zinc ions from aqueous solution using Amasya zeolites from Turkey

A 3-D Eulerian-Lagrangian approach to moving vehicles is presented that takes into account the traffic-induced flow rate and turbulence. The method is applied to pollutant dispersion in an individual street canyon and a system of two street canyons forming a perpendicular intersection. The approach is based on computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations using a Eulerian approach for continuous phase and a Lagrangian approach for moving vehicles. The wind speed was assigned values of 4, 7 and 12 m/s. One-way and two-way traffic with different traffic rates per lane is considered. In the case of the intersection, a longitudinal wind direction was assumed. Predictions show differences in the pollutant dispersion in the case of one-way and two-way traffic.     

Description of pollutant dispersion in an urban street canyon using a two-dimensional lattice model

The pollutant dispersion in a street canyon has been described in this work by using an isothermal two-dimensional lattice model coupled to the Smagorinsky sub-grid scale model. The influence of the ratio between the height of the upstream and downstream canyon walls, as well as the gap distance between them on the flow pattern, was analyzed considering the situations of ‘open country’ or isolated street canyon and ‘urban roughness’ in which the influence of an urban fabric was considered. The model determined the trajectories of a large number of passive tracer particles released in the computational domain, making it easy to visualize the flow regimes established in each case. The results agreed with the observations reported from the experiments showing a strong influence on the flow inside the canyon exerted by the upstream landscape configuration.     

Street canyon ventilation and atmospheric turbulence

Operational models for pollutant dispersion in urban areas require an estimate of the turbulent transfer between the street canyons and the overlying atmospheric flow. To date, the mechanisms that govern this process remain poorly understood. We have studied the mass exchange between a street canyon and the atmospheric flow above it by means of wind tunnel experiments. Fluid velocities were measured with a Particle Image Velocimetry system and passive scalar concentrations were measured using a Flame Ionisation Detector. The mass-transfer velocity between the canyon and the external flow has been estimated by measuring the cavity wash-out time. A two-box model, used to estimate the transfer velocity for varying dynamical conditions of the external flow, has been used to interpret the experimental data. This study sheds new light on the mechanisms which drive the ventilation of a street canyon and illustrates the influence of the external turbulence on the transfer process.     

A multi-approach monitoring of particulate matter, metals and PAHs in an urban street canyon

For the first time until now, the results from a prediction model (Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling System (ADMS)-Road) of pollutant dispersion in a street canyon were compared to the results obtained from biomonitors. In particular, the instrumental monitoring of particulate matter (PM10) and the biomonitoring of 14 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and 11 metals by Quercus ilex leaves and Hypnum cupressiforme moss bags, acting as long- and short-term accumulators, respectively, were carried out. For both PAHs and metals, similar bioaccumulation trends were observed, with higher concentrations in biomonitors exposed at the leeward canyon side, affected by primary air vortex. The major pollutant accumulation at the leeward side was also predicted by the ADMS-Road model, on the basis of the prevailing wind direction that determines different exposure of the street canyon sides to pollutants emitted by vehicular traffic. A clear vertical (3, 6 and 9 m) distribution gradient of pollutants was not observed, so that both the model and biomonitoring results suggested that local air turbulences in the street canyon could contribute to uniform pollutant distribution at different heights.     

Numerical Evaluation of the Effect of Traffic Pollution on Indoor Air Quality of a Naturally Ventilated Building

Abstract

A computational fluid dynamics technique was used to evaluate the effect of traffic pollution on indoor air quality of a naturally ventilated building for various ventilation control strategies. The transport of street-level nonreactive pollutants emitted from motor vehicles through the indoor environment was simulated using the large eddy simulation (LES) of the turbulent flows and the pollutant transport equations. The numerical model developed herein was verified by available wind-tunnel measurements. Good agreement with the measured velocity and concentration data was found. Twelve sets of numerical scenario simulations for various roof- and side-vent openness and outdoor wind speeds were carried out. The effects of the air change rate, the indoor airflow pattern, and the external pollutant dispersion on indoor air quality were investigated. The control strategies of ventilation rates and paths for reducing incoming vehicle pollutants and maintaining a desirable air change rate are proposed to reduce the impact of outdoor traffic pollution during traffic rush hours. It was concluded that the windward side vent is a significant factor contributing to air change rate and indoor air quality. Air intakes on the leeward side of the building can effectively reduce the peak and average indoor concentration of traffic pollutants, but the corresponding air change rate is relatively low. Using the leeward cross-flow ventilation with the windward roof vent can effectively lower incoming vehicle pollutants and maintain a desirable air change rate during traffic rush hours.     

Numerical evaluation of the effect of traffic pollution on indoor air quality of a naturally ventilated building

A computational fluid dynamics technique was used to evaluate the effect of traffic pollution on indoor air quality of a naturally ventilated building for various ventilation control strategies. The transport of street-level nonreactive pollutants emitted from motor vehicles through the indoor environment was simulated using the large eddy simulation (LES) of the turbulent flows and the pollutant transport equations. The numerical model developed herein was verified by available wind-tunnel measurements. Good agreement with the measured velocity and concentration data was found. Twelve sets of numerical scenario simulations for various roof- and side-vent openness and outdoor wind speeds were carried out. The effects of the air change rate, the indoor airflow pattern, and the external pollutant dispersion on indoor air quality were investigated. The control strategies of ventilation rates and paths for reducing incoming vehicle pollutants and maintaining a desirable air change rate are proposed to reduce the impact of outdoor traffic pollution during traffic rush hours. It was concluded that the windward side vent is a significant factor contributing to air change rate and indoor air quality. Air intakes on the leeward side of the building can effectively reduce the peak and average indoor concentration of traffic pollutants, but the corresponding air change rate is relatively low. Using the leeward cross-flow ventilation with the windward roof vent can effectively lower incoming vehicle pollutants and maintain a desirable air change rate during traffic rush hours.     

Pollutant dispersion in urban street canopies

The effects of building configurations on pollutant dispersion around street canopies were studied numerically. The dispersion of pollutants emitted from ground sources was simulated by continuously discharging large number of particles into the computation domain. The mean wind velocities at each time-step were firstly computed by solving the time-dependent incompressible Navier–Stokes equations, while the fluctuated velocities were determined using a statistical procedure. The trajectories of the discharged particles were obtained from a Lagrangian particle model. Three categories of numerical simulation were conducted to study the effect of different canopy geometries on the pollutant dispersion. The computed wind field data were consistent with the wind field characteristics described in the previous wind tunnel studies. A counter-clockwise vortex was found resulting in high pollutant concentration at the windward side of the downstream building of the street canopy and low pollutant concentration at the leeward side of the upstream building. The increase in height of the urban roughness buildings would facilitate the pollutant dispersion in urban street canopy under certain building configurations. Two or more vortices stacked vertically in a street canopy were found when height of the upstream and downstream buildings of a street canopy was increased, preventing pollutants from escaping out of the canopy.     

Flow and dispersion in an urban cubical cavity

Flow and dispersion in an urban cubical cavity are numerically investigated using a Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS) model with the renormalization group (RNG) k–? turbulence closure model. The urban cubical cavity is surrounded by flank walls that are parallel to the streamwise direction, called end-walls, as well as upstream and downstream walls. A primary vortex and secondary vortices including end-wall vortices are formed in the cavity. Because of the end-wall drag effect, the averaged mean-flow kinetic energy in the cavity is smaller than that in an urban street canyon that is open in the along-canyon direction. A trajectory analysis shows that the end-wall vortices cause fluid particles to move in the spanwise direction, indicating that flow in the cavity is essentially three-dimensional. The iso-surfaces of the Okubo–Weiss criterion capture cavity vortices well. The pollutant concentration is high near the bottom of the upstream side in the case of continuous pollutant emission, whereas it is high near the center of the primary vortex in the case of instantaneous pollutant emission. To get some insight into the degree of pollutant escape from the cavity according to various meteorological factors, extensive numerical experiments with different ambient wind speeds and directions, inflow turbulence intensities, and cavity-bottom heating intensities are performed. For each experiment, we calculate the time constant, which is defined as the time taken for the pollutant concentration to decrease to e^?1 of its initial value. The time constant decreases substantially with increasing ambient wind speed, and tends to decrease with increasing inflow turbulence intensity and cavity-bottom heating intensity. The time constant increases as the ambient wind direction becomes oblique. High ambient wind speed is found to be the most crucial factor for ventilating the cavity, thus improving air quality in an urban cubical cavity.