Air Pollution Research Needs: Herbaceous and Ornamental Plants and Agriculturally Generated Pollutants

Effects of various air pollutants on economically important crops and ornamentals have been studied since before the turn of the century.

Summaries of this research on the effects of air pollutants, that have appeared in criteria documents developed by the Environmental Protection Agency, should be reviewed with respect to differences in plant susceptibility found in various regions of the country. These susceptibility differences are associated with variations in both environmental conditions and distribution of pollutants. Research efforts on air pollution injury to vegetation have often been poorly coordinated leaving many gaps in our knowledge. A better assessment of the impact of air pollution on vegetation is required to attain realistic controls for pollutants affecting agriculture. Research areas of major concern include: baseline information on effects of pollutants on agricultural productivity; dose-response information to support predictive mathematical models for acute and chronic studies of growth, yield, and quality effects; effects of pollutants interacting with other pollutants and with insects and plant diseases; mechanisms of pollutant action; genetic changes related to pollutant effects; effects of environmental stresses on plant response to pollutants; evaluation of plants including soil microbes as pollutant sinks; development of techniques to minimize pollutant effects; and, the effects of agricultural chemicals as air pollutants. There is a need for studies that consider the whole plant in its natural environment. Conceptual models interrelating pollutant effects and their interactions and ultimately mathematical models will be needed to develop an intelligent approach to land management. The effects of agriculturally produced pollutants on plants and other receptors must be identified and quantified.     

A methodology to urban air quality assessment during large time periods of winter using computational fluid dynamic models

The representativeness of point measurements in urban areas is limited due to the strong heterogeneity of the atmospheric flows in cities. To get information on air quality in the gaps between measurement points, and have a 3D field of pollutant concentration, Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) models can be used. However, unsteady simulations during time periods of the order of months, often required for regulatory purposes, are not possible for computational reasons. The main objective of this study is to develop a methodology to evaluate the air quality in a real urban area during large time periods by means of steady CFD simulations. One steady simulation for each inlet wind direction was performed and factors like the number of cars inside each street, the length of streets and the wind speed and direction were taken into account to compute the pollutant concentration. This approach is only valid in winter time when the pollutant concentrations are less affected by atmospheric chemistry. A model based on the steady-state Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes equations (RANS) and standard k-? turbulence model was used to simulate a set of 16 different inlet wind directions over a real urban area (downtown Pamplona, Spain). The temporal series of NO_x and PM₁₀ and the spatial differences in pollutant concentration of NO₂ and BTEX obtained were in agreement with experimental data. Inside urban canopy, an important influence of urban boundary layer dynamics on the pollutant concentration patterns was observed. Large concentration differences between different zones of the same square were found. This showed that concentration levels measured by an automatic monitoring station depend on its location in the street or square, and a modelling methodology like this is useful to complement the experimental information. On the other hand, this methodology can also be applied to evaluate abatement strategies by redistributing traffic emissions.     

A Model for Gaseous Pollutant Sorption by Leaves

A model simulating pollutant exchange with isolated leaves that integrates factors which have been found to be important in regulating pollutant uptake by leaves is presented. The model is patterned after an electrical analogue simulator and was designed to emphasize the effects of pollutant and leaf properties on the process. The article discusses the relative significance of factors affecting gas transfer, sorption of pollutants by leaf surfaces, and pollutant solubility and fate on the uptake process. Data is presented showing uptake of ozone by exposed mesophyll and several epidermal surfaces chosen for their different surface characteristics. The model was used to derive a mathematical expression for the exchange process which was rearranged to define internal (average) pollutant solute concentration in terms of external concentration, leaf and boundary layer diffusion resistance, surface sorption and pollutant solubility. The importance of estimating internal solute concentration is discussed.     

Use of a lux-marked rhizobacterium as a biosensor to assess changes in rhizosphere C flow due to pollutant stress

The flow of carbon from plant roots into soil supports a range of microbial processes and is therefore critical to ecosystem function and health. Pollution-induced stress, which influences rhizosphere C flow is of considerable potential importance, and therefore needs to be evaluated. This paper reports on a method, based on reporter gene technology, for quantifying pollutant effects on rhizosphere C flow. The method uses the lux-marked rhizobacterium Pseudomonas fluorescens, where bioluminescence output of this biosensor is directly correlated with the metabolic activity and reports on C flow in root exudate. Plantago lanceolata was treated with paraquat (representing a model pollutant stress) in a simple microcosm system. The lux-biosensor response correlated closely with C concentrations in the exudate and demonstrated that the pollutant stress increased the C flow from the plantago roots, 24 h after application of the herbicide. The lux-reporter system therefore potentially offers a technique for use in assessing the impact of pollutant stress on rhizosphere C flow through the soil microbial biomass.     

Differential bioavailability of field-weathered p,p'-DDE to plants of the Cucurbita and Cucumis genera

Field experiments were conducted to assess the bioavailability of weathered p,p'-DDE in soil to plants in the Cucurbita (squash, pumpkin) and Cucumis (cucumber, melon) genera. As expected, significant variability exists in the uptake of p,p'-DDE between plants of different genera. Root:soil concentration factors, defined as the ratio of p,p'-DDE (ng/g, dry weight) in the roots to that in the soil, approach 1.8 for cucumbers/melons and 16 for squash/pumpkin. However, significant differences were also observed among varieties of squash and pumpkin, with greater than an order of magnitude variation in the root:soil concentration factors and up to two orders of magnitude difference in the absolute amount of contaminant present within the plant. Although root systems routinely contain the highest concentration of p,p'-DDE (ng/g), this compartment comprises less than 2% of the total plant biomass. In all varieties but one, more than 86% of the extracted pollutant was in the shoot system. For two of varieties of Cucurbita pepo, concentrations of p,p'-DDE in the stems reached 1.1-2.2 mg/g and estimations of percent contaminant extraction from the soil ranged from 0.40% to 2.4%. These values approach those observed in the phytoremediation of heavy metals by "hyperaccumulating" species and indicate the potential for a plant-based remediation approach to soils contaminated with persistent organic pollutants.     

Application of Markov model to environmental fate of phenanthrene in Lanzhou Reach of Yellow River

The theory of Markov Chain is used scientifically to describe the transfer/transformation of phenanthrene in Lanzhou Reach of Yellow River. In Markov Model (MM), the states of phenanthrene in Lanzhou Reach are divided into six different states, namely being degraded, leaving the system with the addvective flow, being in air, being in water, being adsorbed on suspending substances (SS), and being in bottom sediment (BS). The MM is simulated by using Matlab6.5 to reveal the temporal changes and environmental fate of phenanthrene in Lanzhou Reach. It is shown that the environmental system will be steady in 30,000-35,000 h, the final distributions of phenanthrene in air, water, SS, and BS are 23,033 kg, 1961 kg, 800 kg, and 2824 kg respectively, with the corresponding percent of 80%, 7%, 3%, and 10%.The results of MM are approximate to the results of Fugacity Model (FM), so Markov Chain can be used to evaluate the environmental fate of pollutants in multimedia environment. The outputs of MM include the following aspects: (1) The residual time of pollutant in different environmental media and the transiting time of pollutant between different environmental media; (2) The response time of the environmental system; (3) The total mass of pollutant transferred or degraded during a given time interval; (4) The time needed for the environmental system to be steady and the final steady distributions of pollutant in the environmental system.     

On the correlation of air and pollutant exchange for street canyons in combined wind-buoyancy-driven flow

The ventilation and pollutant transport in a two-dimensional (2D) street canyon of building-height-to-street-width (aspect) ratio h/b = 1 under different unstable stratifications were examined. To characterize the combined wind-buoyancy-driven flow and pollutant transport at different Richardson number Ri, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model based on the Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes (RANS) equations with the Renormalization Group (RNG) k ? ε turbulence model was adopted. Unlike the isothermal condition, a secondary recirculation is initiated at the ground-level windward corner of the street canyon once the unstable stratification is switched on (Ri < 0). It traps the ground-level pollutant leading to elevated pollutant concentration there. As Ri further decreases, the enlarging secondary recirculation enables direct pollutant removal from its core to the shear layer that offsets the ground-level pollutant accumulation. The ventilation and pollutant removal performance under different unstable stratifications are compared by the air (ACH) and pollutant (PCH) exchange rates, and pollutant retention time (τ). Both the mean and turbulent components of ACH are found to increase with decreasing Ri, suggesting that unstable stratification promotes ventilation in street canyons. Moreover, the CFD results agree well with our theoretical model that ACH² varies linearly with Ri. Turbulent transport originally dominates the pollutant removal under isothermal condition. However, progressive domination of pollutant removal by mean wind can be observed with decreasing stability (decreasing Ri from 0 to ?10.6). The critical value is estimated to be Ri = ?8, below which mean wind is the major pollutant removal carrier. Reduction in τ is also observed with decreasing Ri. Hence, in unstable stratification, pollutant resides shorter time in the street canyon compared with its isothermal counterpart, and the ventilation and pollutant removal are more favorable.     

改善深圳河水质的补水方案及生态影响初步分析

深圳河旱季天然径流量小而污染负荷高,为了改善河流水质,在削减入河污染物的同时有必要采取补水措施。利用水质模型,计算了不同污水处理率下,分别以污水资源化再生水、珠江口海水和大鹏湾海水为补水水源时,深圳河达到基本不黑臭所需的补水量。讨论了补水方案对河流水质、盐度、水动力条件的改变及其对生态系统的影响。研究表明,引海水对河流生态系统的冲击不容忽视。而污水资源化是较优的补水方案。     

One-at-a-time sensitivity analysis of pollutant loadings to subsurface properties for the assessment of soil and groundwater pollution potential

Chemical leak was numerically simulated for four chemical substances: benzene (light non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL)), tetrachloroethylene (dense NAPL), phenol (soluble in water), and pentachlorophenol (white crystalline solid) in a hypothetical subsurface leak situation using a multiphase compositional transport model. One metric ton of chemical substances was assumed to leak at a point 3.51 m above the water table in a homogeneous unconfined aquifer which had the depth to water table of 7.135 m, the hydraulic gradient of 0.00097, the recharge rate of 0.7 mm/day, and the permeability of 2.92?×?10^?10 m². For comparison, surface spill scenarios, which had a long pathway from source to the water table, were simulated. Using the model results, point-source pollutant loadings to soil and groundwater were calculated by multiplying mass, impact area, and duration above and below the water table respectively. Their sensitivity to subsurface properties (depth to water table, recharge rate, porosity, organic carbon content, decay rate, hydraulic gradient, capillary pressure, relative permeability, permeability) was analyzed, with changing each parameter within acceptable ranges. The study result showed that the pollutant loading to groundwater was more sensitive to the subsurface properties than the pollutant loading to soil. Decay rate, groundwater depth, hydraulic gradient and porosity were influential to pollutant loadings. The impact of influential parameters on pollutant loadings was nonlinear. The dominant subsurface properties of pollution loadings (e.g., decay rate, groundwater depth, hydraulic gradient, and porosity for groundwater) also affect the vulnerability, and the subsurface pollutant loadings defined in this study are dependent on chemical properties as well, which indicates that the influential hydrogeological and physicochemical parameters to pollutant loadings can be used for pollution potential assessment. The contribution of this work is the suggestion that the sensitivity of pollutant loadings can be used for pollution potential assessment. Soil and groundwater pollution potential of chemicals are discussed altogether for leak scenarios. A physics-based model is used to understand the impact of subsurface properties on the fate and transport of chemicals above and below the water table, and consequently their impact on the pollutant loading to soil and groundwater.

     

Application of a scenario-based modeling system to evaluate the air quality impacts of future growth

The structure and design of future urban development can have significant adverse effects on air pollutant emissions as well as other environmental factors. When considering the future impact of growth on mobile source emissions, we generally model the increase in vehicle kilometers traveled (VKT) as a function of population growth. However, diverse and poorly planned urban development (i.e., urban sprawl) can force higher rates of motor vehicle use and in return increase levels of pollutant emissions than alternative land-use scenarios. The objective of this study is to develop and implement an air quality assessment tool that takes into account the influence of alternative growth and development scenarios on air quality.The use of scenario-based techniques in land use planning has been around since the late 1940s and been tested in many different applications to aid in decision-making. In this study, we introduce the development of an advanced interactive scenario-based land use and atmospheric chemistry modeling system coupled with a GIS (Geographical Information System) framework. The modeling system is designed to be modular and includes land use/land cover information, transportation, meteorological, emissions, and photochemical modeling components. The methods and modularity of the developed system allow its application to both broad areas and applications.To investigate the impact of possible land use change and urbanization, we evaluated a set of alternative future patterns of land use developed for a study area in Southwest California. Four land use and two population variants (increases of 500k and 1M) were considered. Overall, a Regional Low-Density Future was seen to have the highest pollutant emissions, largest increase in VKT, and the greatest impact on air quality. On the other hand, a Three-Centers Future appeared to be the most beneficial alternative future land-use scenario in terms of air quality. For all cases, the increase in population was the main factor leading to the change on predicted pollutant levels.     

紊动特性对污染物降解的影响研究

采用潜水泵作为紊动诱发装置，利用PIV测量了流场，研究了不同流量下紊动对污染物降解的影响规律。结果表明，紊动对污染物的降解有明显的影响，流量越大，紊动强度越大，污染物的降解率越高。对紊动强度与有无紊动水箱COD、NH4^＋-N、TN和TP降解增加量的变化曲线进行指数函数拟合，拟合结果良好，可以认为紊动对污染物降解的影响可以描述为“一级反应”理论。     

Defense and avoidance of ozone under global change

The level II approach of the critical loads concept adopted by the UNECE aims at a flux based evaluation and takes into account environmental factors governing stomatal conductance. These factors will probably be affected by global change. The flux concept predicts that a decrease in stomatal conductance would protect trees from air pollution effects by decreasing uptake. However, experimental evidence is inconclusive. Numerous results suggest that pollutants and factors subject to global change (drought, CO(2)) may interact and even exacerbate effects, probably because antioxidative defense systems are involved in both, defense against pollutant effects and protection from natural stress. An effective pollutant dose, which is weighted by physiological defense capacity, would better predict such effects. In this review paper we argue that the flux-based approach is imperfect, because global change effects may also modify the physiological susceptibility to ozone. Instead, a flux concept weighted by defense capacity should be tested.     

Estimation methods and monitoring network issues in the quantitative estimation of land-based COD and TN loads entering the sea: a case study in Qingdao City,China

At present, the monitoring network of China cannot provide sufficient data to estimate land-based pollutant loads that enter the sea, and estimation methods are imprecisely used. In this study, the selection of monitoring stations, monitoring frequency, and pollutant load estimation methods was studied in Qingdao City, a typical coastal city in China, taken as an example. Land-based pollutant loads from Qingdao were estimated, and load distribution, density, and composition were analyzed to identify the key pollution source regions (SRs) that need to be monitored and controlled. Results show that the administrative land area of Qingdao can be divided into 25 sea-sink source regions (SSRs). A total of 14 more rivers and 62 industrial enterprises should be monitored to determine the comprehensive pollutant loads of the city. Furthermore, the monitoring frequency of rivers should not be less than three times/year; a monitoring frequency of five or more times is preferable. The findings on pollutant load estimation with the use of different estimation methods substantially vary; estimation results with the use of ratio-based methods were 10 and 22 % higher than those with the use of monitoring-based methods in terms of chemical oxygen demand (COD) and total nitrogen (TN), respectively. None-point sources contributed the majority of the pollutant loads at about 70 % of the total COD and 60 % of the total TN.     

Predicting Gran alkalinity and calcium concentrations in river waters over a national scale using a novel modification to the G-BASH model

Monthly stream water calcium and Gran alkalinity concentration data from 11 sub-catchments of the Nether Beck in the English Lake District have been used to appraise the transferability of the Scottish, River Dee-based G-BASH model. Readily available riparian zone geochemistry and flow paths were used initially to predict minimum and mean stream water concentrations at the Nether Beck, based on calibration equations from the River Dee catchment data. Predicted values significantly exceeded observed values. Differences in runoff between the two areas, leading to a dilution effect in the Nether Beck, explained most of the difference between observed and predicted values. Greater acid deposition in the Lake District also reduced stream water Gran alkalinity concentrations in that area. If regional differences in precipitation, evapotranspiration and pollutant deposition are incorporated into the model, it may then be used reliably to predict catchment susceptibility to acidification over a wide regional (national) scale.     

Transferring the heterogeneity of surface emissions to variability in pollutant concentrations over urban areas through a chemistry-transport model

Horizontal resolution of grid-based chemistry-transport models is limited to a few square kilometers which has been proved insufficient for assessing human exposure and health impact. We propose a general methodology, applicable on any kind of grid-based air-quality model, that combines subgrid scale information on emission and land-use data in order to disaggregate the grid-averaged emission flux into a set of source-specific components (subgrid-environments). Different subgrid concentrations are calculated inside each one of these environments providing a direct estimate of pollutant variability along with the ‘standard’ grid-averaged model output. The method was first validated over a controlled emissions case by comparing concentrations modeled in the subgrid-environments with concentrations modeled directly at higher model resolution and next over a real case-study, where subgrid concentrations were compared with monitor data from sites representing different types of urban environments (i.e. roads and residential blocks). It was shown that the method is capable to yield accurate estimates of small scale pollutant variability.     

Combination of magnetic parameters: an efficient way to discriminate soil-contamination sources (south France)

Biplots combining magnetic parameters allow to identification and differentiation different pollutant emission sources. A major problem in soil pollution is the characterization of the relative contributions of different anthropogenic particles sources. This paper demonstrates the efficiency of magnetic techniques to provide identification and differentiation of contaminating emission sources. About 100 soil samples were collected across a mixed agricultural and industrial area (Crau plain/Berre-Fos basin) in southern France. Nine soil profiles were realized. They are aligned along a transect, from the Mediterranean cost to the north. Measurements of initial magnetic susceptibility (chi) and remanent magnetization (ARM, IRM) have been carried out at room temperature. Several ratios of magnetic parameters were calculated and tested. Bivariate analyses allow to characterize different pollution sources and graphic results suggest three dominant contributions originated from road traffic, airport and steel industry. Moreover, magnetic grain-size discrimination between surface-soil samples and bottom-soil samples is obtained. An increase of hard magnetic components from topsoil towards the bottom of the profiles is evidenced.     

Application of Gas-Aerosol Adsorption Data to the Selection of Air Quality Standards

A quantitative approach is presented for selecting air quality standards which take into account pollutant gas-aerosol synergistic effects. These synergistic health effects have been postulated to be due to the adsorption or absorption of the pollutant gas by the aerosol particles. The approach presented in this paper assumes that the synergistic toxic agent is the adsorbed pollutant gas. Therefore, limiting the concentration of the adsorbed pollutant gas limits the magnitude of the synergistic effects. The concentration of the adsorbed pollutant gas is related to the concentrations of the gaseous phase pollutant gas and the atmospheric aerosol using the Langmuir adsorption isotherm. An example is presented of the selection of air quality standards for sulfur dioxide and the atmospheric aerosol using concentration data for these two pollutants along with health effect data.     

Influencing factors and a proposed evaluation methodology for predicting groundwater contamination potential from stormwater infiltration activities.

To offset the detrimental effects of urbanization on groundwater recharge, stormwater managers are focusing on infiltrating much of the runoff from a site that was generated because of development. For this to be effective, tools are required to predict the potential for contamination resulting from this infiltration for many site conditions, because infiltration should be stressed in areas where the least potential for causing groundwater contamination exists. Factors that influence contamination potential include the pollutant concentration in the runoff directed to the infiltration device and the ability of the underlying soil to remove the pollutant. The groundwater contamination potential of some pollutants, even those with high concentrations and moderate-to-high mobilities, can be reduced with proper pretreatment before infiltration. This paper presents a methodology that can be used to evaluate infiltration as an management option and introduces two different levels of models that could be used to evaluate contamination potential.     

Exposure to elevated ozone levels differentially affects the antioxidant capacity and the redox homeostasis of two subtropical Phaseolus vulgaris L. varieties

Ozone (O₃) has become one of the most toxic air pollutants to plants worldwide. However, investigations on O₃ impacts on crops health and productivity in South America countries are still scarce. The present study analyzed the differences on the enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant system in foliar tissue of two subtropical Phaseolus vulgaris varieties exposed to high O₃ concentration. Both varieties were negatively impacted by the pollutant, but the responses between each variety were quite distinct. Results revealed that Irai has higher constitutive levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and ascorbate (AsA) concentration, but lower total thiol levels and catalase immunocontent. In this variety catalase protein concentration was increased after O₃ exposure, indicating a better cellular capacity to reduce hydrogen peroxide. On the opposite, Fepagro 26-exposed plants increased ROS generation and AsA concentration, but had the levels of total thiol content and catalase protein unchanged. Furthermore, O₃ treatment reduced the levels of chlorophylls a and b, and the relationship analysis between the chlorophyll ratio (a/b) and protein concentration were positively correlated indicating that photosynthetic apparatus is compromised, and thus probably is the biomass acquisition on Fepagro 26. Differently, O₃ treatment of Irai did not affect chlorophylls a and b content, and loss on the protein content was lower. Altogether, these data suggest that early accumulation of ROS on Fepagro 26 are associated with an insufficient leaf antioxidant capacity, which leads to cell structure disruption and impairs the photosynthesis. Irai seems to be more tolerant to O₃ toxic effects than Fepagro 26, and the observed differences on O₃ sensitivity between the two varieties are apparently based on constitutive differences involved in the maintenance of intracellular redox homeostasis.     

Consideration of Air Quality Standards for Vegetation With Respect to Ozone

Present evidence suggests that ozone is the most damaging of all air pollutants affecting vegetation. It is the principal oxidant in the photochemical smog complex. Concentrations of ozone have exceeded 0.5 part per million (ppm) in the Los Angeles area. One-tenth of this level for 8 hours is known to injure very sensitive tobacco varieties. Many plant species are visibly affected after a few hours exposure at concentrations much lower than 0.5 ppm. There is also some evidence that ozone reduces plant growth. Many factors must be taken into account when considering standards to protect vegetation from ozone damage. These include ozone concentration and methods of measurement, time of exposure, possible additive effects of other pollutants, sensitivity of plant species, their economic value, and the extent of injury which can be tolerated. The response of a species to the pollutant is conditioned by genetic factors and environmental conditions. Lack of specific routine methods for measuring ozone in ambient air is a handicap. California and Colorado established standards for oxidants at 0.15 and 0.10 ppm, respectively, for 1 hour. How these standards relate to the ozone dosage causing acute and chronic injury to various plant species is discussed.