Climate anomalies, Indonesian vegetation fires and terrestrial carbon emissions

There was a widespread misconception about the causes of vegetation and land fires in Indonesia. At a certain point, the public perceived that fires and the associated haze pollution were primarily caused by smallholders' agricultural activities. In fact, there was a variety of land-use activities including large-scale land clearing following deforestation for further land development. El Niño events and the associated dry weather were sometimes quoted by officials and the media as the cause of fires. The fire episodes from 1980 to 2000 were analysed in connection with climate anomalies and the implementation of land-use policies related to forest conversions. The analysis employs long-term climatic and sea surface temperature data to reconstruct climate distributions and anomalies including Southern Oscillation Index (SOI), Sea Surface Temperature (SST) and Outgoing Long-wave Radiation (OLR). In this study, the terrestrial carbon emissions from vegetation fires were estimated based on official statistical data on area burnt. The possible incentives for sustainable land management were discussed in the light of fire prevention. The underlying cause neglected in the discussion of Indonesian vegetation fires was forest and land development policy. Legitimated in the early 1980s, it drove massive forest conversions and the use of fires for land clearing. El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) provided dry weather suitable for biomass burning and widespread fire, but it was hardly the cause of fires. The estimate of area burnt in the big fires in 1997 was about 11.6 Mha, resulting in carbon release of 1.45 Gt, equivalent to 0.73 ppmv of CO₂, or almost half the annual global atmospheric CO₂ growth. Based on the current carbon market price such emissions by the 1997 fire episode were worth around US$ 3.6 billion.     

History of equatorial vegetation fires and fire research in Southeast Asia before the 1997–98 episode: A reconstruction of creeping environmental changes

Charcoal fragments in forest soils give evidence of prehistoric and historic natural and anthropogenic wildfires in the equatorial rainforests and in seasonal monsoon forests of continental and insular South Asia. Conditions favourable for the occurrence of historic and contemporary rainforest fires are associated with droughts, especially during dry spells caused by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) event. Historic land-use fires and wildfires can be reconstructed from a number of narrative reports, including documents that reveal drought and famine. In the eastern part of Borneo prehistoric and historic records of coal fires reveal a unique natural source of wildfires. Starting with modern transmigration programs and systematic conversion of primary and secondary vegetation, including peat-swamp ecosystems, into farmland and industrial plantations, the use of fire as a land-clearing tool escalated in the 1990s. During droughts land-clearing fires additionally contribute to wildfires. A detailed study of the ecological consequences of the episode of land-use fires and wildfires of 1982–1983 was conducted on an area of 2.7 million ha of dipterocarp rainforest in East Kalimantan. The results show that dipterocarps are highly susceptible to fire and are replaced by pioneers and fire-tolerant species that occupy the disturbed sites or survive the immediate fire effects. Smoke from forest conversion burning caused considerable environmental problems, reducing visibility and affecting human health and security. Emissions from vegetation burning influence chemistry and functioning of the global atmosphere. The situation is different in those parts of mainland and insular Southeast Asia that are characterized by seasonal climate. Through long-term influence of climate variability, fire influence, and anthropogenic pressure the vegetation is better adapted to extrinsic stresses. During the 15 years between the extreme ENSO events and fire episodes of 1982–1983 and 1997–1998 the national and international communities have been alerted and prepared to respond to the escalating fire situation in Indonesia. The response to the onset of the 1997–1998 fire and smoke episode, however, was absolutely inadequate and erratic. Meanwhile a whole continent – the maritime continent of Southeast Asia – has been degraded by excessive fire application for more than 20 years.     

Development of the Indonesian and Malaysian Fire Danger Rating Systems

Forest and land fires in Southeast Asia have many social, economic, and environmental impacts. Tropical peatland fires affect global carbon dynamics, and haze from peat fires has serious negative impacts on the regional economy and human health. To mitigate these fire-related problems, forest and land management agencies require an early warning system to assist them in implementing fire prevention and management plans before fire problems begin. Fire Danger Rating Systems (FDRS) were developed for Indonesia and Malaysia to provide early warning of the potential for serious fire and haze events. In particular, they identify time periods when fires can readily start and spread to become uncontrolled fires and time periods when smoke from smouldering fires will cause an unacceptably high level of haze. The FDRS were developed by adapting components of the Canadian Forest Fire Danger Rating System, including the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index (FWI) System and the Canadian Forest Fire Behavior Prediction (FBP) System, to local vegetation, climate, and fire regime conditions. A smoke potential indicator was developed using the Drought Code (DC) of the FWI System. Historical air quality analysis showed that the occurrence of severe haze events increased substantially when DC was above 400. An ignition potential indicator was developed using the Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC) of the FWI System. Historical hot spot analysis, grass moisture, and grass ignition studies showed that fire occurrence and the ability for grass fires to start and spread dramatically increased when FFMC > 82. The Initial Spread Index (ISI) of the FWI System was used to develop a difficulty of control indicator for grassland fires, a fuel type that can exhibit high rates of spread and fire intensity. This ISI-based indicator was developed using the grass fuel model of the FBP System, along with a standard grass fuel load and curing level estimated from previous Indonesian studies. Very high fire intensity is expected in grasslands when ISI ≥ 6. To provide early warning, the FDRS identifies classes of increasing fire danger as the FFMC, DC, and ISI approach these key threshold values. The Indonesian FDRS is now operated nationally at the Indonesian Meteorological and Geophysical Agency. The Malaysian Meteorological Service operates the Malaysian FDRS and displays regional outputs for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations. The FDRS are being used by forestry, agriculture, environment, and fire and rescue agencies to develop and implement fire prevention, detection, and suppression plans.     

Shifting cultivation in peatlands

Transboundary haze pollution from smoke from land preparation fires has become a perennial problem in Indonesia, especially in the last 10 years during the dry season. Most of that smoke originates from illegal land preparation fires for oil palm and industrial forest plantation as well as from shifting cultivation, which is usually blamed for the smoke. In order to understand the role of fire in shifting cultivation areas dominated by peat soils, research was conducted during the dry season of 2001 on land belonging to the community of Pelalawan village, Pelalawan district, Riau province, Indonesia. The research showed that burning did not affect all peat areas equally. No peat was burned on a fibric site, while burning on a hemic site varied in depth from 6.0 cm to 12.6 cm, and on a sapric site from 15.4 cm to 31.9 cm. Further, on the fibric site only phosphorus increased significantly following burning, while on the hemic only the base saturation increased; on the sapric site, however, both base saturation and phosphorus increased compared to the condition before burning. These data show that if fire is continues to be used for land preparation in peat areas, peat becomes critically endangered.     

Local to global perspectives on forest and land fires in Southeast Asia

Forest and land fires are not new to the landscapes of Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, strikingly different perspectives persist about the significance of fires in the tropics to environmental changes and human well-being and consequently how they should be managed. Our synthesis of papers in this special issue suggests both trade-offs and complementarities in various policy responses with differing objectives. There are, however, at least three domains with high potential of meeting multiple objectives. First, is through identification, and improved management, of ecosystems vulnerable to fire under current and future climate. Agriculture, forestry and human settlements on peat land areas in Indonesia are candidates for such a focus. Second, is through building adaptive capacities to manage fire and related land and water resources. Investments in capacity at multiple levels are needed, but particularly at fairly local levels where stakeholders have strong incentives to manage fires appropriate to local contexts. Third, is through building awareness that fire management does not universally equate to fire suppression. Severe smoke haze episodes, for example, are also a result of timing of fires, and some fire-adapted ecosystems may depend on fire to persist. Finally, we emphasize that effective fire management is unlikely to be realized without greater engagement by research and policy with stakeholders in thoroughly exploring the full range of land and fire management options. Negotiation, compensation and trade-offs are probably inevitable.     

2014年河北中南部两次重霾天气成因分析

利用河北省环保局环境监测站提供的污染物浓度数据及常规气象观测数据、NCEP再分析资料,结合HYSPLIT4.9后向轨迹模式,对2014年10月上旬发生在河北省的2次大范围的重霾天气特征和成因进行综合分析.结果表明,这2次重污染天气过程PM_2.5地面浓度最大值出现在邢台,为507μg/m³,水平能见度不足1km.均压场的分布和较为平稳的高空形势为2次霾天气提供了有利的气象背景.高湿,静小风以及较低的混合层高度不利于污染物扩散,是导致这两次重污染天气持续的主要原因.结合卫星火点及污染物来源分析表明,河北南部及周边省份的秸秆燃烧加重了第2次过程的污染,污染气团的输送对区域性重霾天气产生重要影响.     

霾污染环境大气能见度参数化方案的改进

霾污染是高浓度大气气溶胶造成低能见度的大气现象,为了完善目前空气质量模式的大气能见度参数化方案,以准确地预报霾污染过程的能见度变化,基于已有的大气总消光系数与大气能见度的关系,依据Mie理论和大气分子的消光特性,计算颗粒物和NO₂的消光系数,提出一种改进的大气能见度参数化方案.为了验证这一改进的参数化方案的大气能见度预报性能,①利用空气质量模式WRF-Chem3.7模拟2013年12月南京地区两次霾污染个例,并且与实际观测数据对比,证实其能够准确地模拟大气颗粒物和NO₂的浓度变化;②利用模拟的大气颗粒物和NO₂的浓度数据,分别采用改进的能见度参数化方案及已有的IMPROVE方案和CHEN的能见度参数化等3个方案,计算两次霾污染个例的大气能见度变化;③与观测能见度比较,评估3个能见度参数化方案的模拟准确性。评估表明,改进的参数化方案模拟的两个霾污染个例能见度的平均标准化偏差和平均偏差分别为17.19%、3.18%和517、173 m,并且和观测能见度的相关系数分别提高到0.76、0.87,其能见度模拟的准确性优于其它两种已有的参数化方案,并在不同相对湿度（RH）和能见度范围内改进的参数化方案模拟的标准化平均误差均小于其它两种参数化方案,其中,在RH < 80%和能见度≥ 1 km范围内标准化平均误差均低于50%.研究显示,改进的大气能见度参数化方案能够有效地提高空气质量模式的霾污染环境大气能见度的预报准确性.      

2015年12月北京市空气重污染过程分析及污染源排放变化

2015年12月,北京市及周边地区连续多次出现重污染天气.在此期间,北京市空气重污染应急指挥部两次发布红色预警.为厘清该月重污染的发生过程、生消变化,测算了应急措施下的污染源排放变化情况,并采用数值模拟和地面观测相结合的分析方法,对重污染的形成原因进行初步分析,同时对应急措施的环境效果进行评估.结果表明:1虽然2015年12月北京市主要大气污染物排放量较去年同期有所下降,但排放强度仍然较大,是重污染过程的内因;气象扩散条件不利是重要的外因,地面风速弱,大气稳定度高,相对湿度高,边界层高度降低,源排放及气象因素共同导致了此轮重污染过程.2红色预警应急措施可实现污染物日排放强度减少36%左右,PM_2.5浓度下降11%~21%,预警的应急措施不能扭转重污染的态势,但对于缓解PM_2.5污染加重趋势有明显的效果.3在重污染天气下,污染物仍在大气中累积,应急措施最明显的效果发生在实施后的48~72 h后,因此建议在PM_2.5浓度快速上升前36~48 h实施减排措施,从而对空气质量预报准确性提出更高的要求.     

郑州市两次典型大气重污染过程成因分析

于2017年11月21~29日利用在线金属分析仪及气象仪器在郑州大学站点进行连续观测,识别郑州市秋冬季节典型灰霾重污染爆发的成因.结果表明：观测期间采样点大气PM_2.5中As,Mn,Fe,Cu和Zn等元素浓度相比其他城市较高;基于气象数据统计分析可知,来自郑州市东北方向污染气团的传输,以及低风速、高湿度的静稳天气造成的本地排放污染物积聚是这两次重污染形成的主要气象因素;同时,利用正矩阵因子分解法（PMF）定量解析出观测期间主要贡献源：扬尘源（36.8%）,机动车源（27.6%）,工业源（21.0%）和燃烧源（14.6%）.其中,扬尘源在清洁天的贡献占比较高,而重污染期间机动车源和燃烧源的贡献显著增大.     

沿海城市灰霾天气与海盐氯损耗机制的关系

随着经济规模迅速扩大和城市化进程加快,大气气溶胶污染日趋严重,由细粒子气溶胶造成的能见度恶化事件越来越多,这些人类活动排放的污染物,可形成灰霾天气致使能见度下降。尤其值得注意的是沿海城市灰霾天气增长较快,沿海城市灰霾天气增多与海盐气溶胶粒子的氯损耗机制关系密切。我国30年前在粉尘污染时代建立的空气质量评价体系,已经远远不能描述新型复合空气污染类型,尤其是不能描述细粒子污染的情况,能见度的恶化主要与细粒子的浓度关系比较大,而与气溶胶的质量浓度关系不大。能见度与PM2.5尤其是PM1有非常好的关系,因而目前用能见度来描述灰霾天气是最好的指标。     

基于MODIS影像估算中国大陆区域草地火污染物时空格局

草地火是草地生态系统重要干扰因子,对草地生态系统结构和功能有重要影响.草地火释放的大量烟气和颗粒物对大气环境、生态系统和人类健康有重要影响.本研究基于2001—2017年中国大陆区域MODIS-MCD64A1数据,结合生物质密度,估算各区域草地火燃烧生物量.并运用排放因子法,估算17年间中国大陆区域草地火排放污染物总量.研究结果表明,中国大陆地区草地生物质密度存在差异,由东向西逐渐递减.草地火时空分布不均衡且存在明显季节性差异,主要集中在3月和9月.中国大陆地区2001—2017年草地火次数、火面积和燃烧总量分别是1.63×10~5次、6.12×10~6 hm~2和23.86 Mt,排放CO_2、CO、CH_4、SO_2、NMVOC、NO_x、PM_(2.5)、BC、OC和TC总量分别为37.27 Mt、1.31 Mt、43.30 kt、11.05 kt、287.74 kt、79.60 kt、155.82 kt、9.25 kt、64.95 kt和75.54 kt.此外,各污染物在时间和空间上不均衡,在东北、华北、华中和西南区域呈增加趋势,华东和西北区域呈降低趋势,华南区域呈显著降低趋势.本研究揭示了中国大陆地区草地火释放污染物的时空变化,为深入揭示草地火对区域环境影响提供数据支持.     

Influence of agricultural activities, forest fires and agro-industries on air quality in Thailand

Annual and monthly-based emission inventories in northern, central and north-eastern provinces in Thailand, where agriculture and related agro-industries are very intensive, were estimated to evaluate the contribution of agricultural activity, including crop residue burning, forest fires and related agro-industries on air quality monitored in corresponding provinces. The monthly-based emission inventories of air pollutants, or, particulate matter (PM), NOx and SO₂, for various agricultural crops were estimated based on information on the level of production of typical crops: rice, corn, sugarcane, cassava, soybeans and potatoes using emission factors and other parameters related to country-specific values taking into account crop type and the local residue burning period. The estimated monthly emission inventory was compared with air monitoring data obtained at monitoring stations operated by the Pollution Control Department, Thailand (PCD) for validating the estimated emission inventory. The agro-industry that has the greatest impact on the regions being evaluated, is the sugar processing industry, which uses sugarcane as a raw material and its residue as fuel for the boiler. The backward trajectory analysis of the air mass arriving at the PCD station was calculated to confirm this influence. For the provinces being evaluated which are located in the upper northern, lower northern and northeast in Thailand, agricultural activities and forest fires were shown to be closely correlated to the ambient PM concentration while their contribution to the production of gaseous pollutants is much less.     

Dengue epidemics in the Caribbean-temperature indices to gauge the potential for onset of dengue

The seasonality, patterns and the climate associations of the reported cases of dengue in the Caribbean were studied by analyzing the annual and monthly variability of reported cases as well as those of climate parameters (temperature and precipitation). More attention was given to Trinidad and Tobago, Barbados, and Jamaica, as those countries contributed mostly to the reported cases. The data were for the period 1980–2003. Results showed that the incidence of dengue in the Caribbean were higher in the last decade (1990s) compared to that in the previous decade (1980s). The yearly patterns of dengue exhibited a well-defined seasonality. The epidemics appeared to occur in the later half of the year following onset of rainfall and increasing temperature. Analysis revealed that the association of the epidemics with temperature was stronger, especially in relation to the onset of dengue, and the probability of epidemics was high during El Niño periods. In years with early warmer periods epidemics appeared to occur early, which was a scenario more probable in the year after an El Niño (an El Niño + 1 year). Indices linked to temperatures that are useful for gauging the potential for onset of dengue were examined. An index based on a moving average temperature (MAT) appeared to be effective in gauging such potential and its average (AMAT) signals a threshold effect. MAT index has potential use in adaptation and mitigation strategies.     

长三角秋冬季典型区域霾天气特征及对比

为总结出霾天气发生时的相关影响因子、特征共性,选取长三角地区8个主要城市,2016~2019年秋冬季发生的7次典型霾天气过程,对比分析了3次霾天气过程中AQI、PM_2.5浓度、气象要素、天气形势、边界层特征的变化以及污染物来源.结果表明：不利的气象条件及高低空配置的静稳天气型导致霾天气的形成.3次过程AQI指数峰值分别为247、306及272,与PM_2.5浓度变化趋于一致.PM_2.5浓度和能见度呈明显负相关关系,且污染过程发生时能见度普遍偏低,2、3次过程能见度谷值均低于50m.高相对湿度、稳定的气温及静风与霾过程的形成有着紧密的联系.总体上混合层高度与AQI呈现负相关关系,混合层高度较低抑制垂直对流,从而使污染物在低空区域性积聚,3次污染过程混合层高度最低值均小于100m.逆温层的出现利于霾污染过程中污染物的累积,近地层的贴地逆温将污染物集聚在地表,第1次过程贴地逆温强度高达8.2℃;脱地逆温导致污染物在边界层内堆积并抑制其扩散,均易导致高浓度污染发生,第2次过程脱地逆温为主,强度高达4.8℃.气溶胶类型多为沙尘、大陆型污染物、污染型沙尘及烟粒.污染发生通常受局地排放、区域输送及长距离输送的共同影响,气团携带的因人为产生的细粒子也是造成污染的主要原因之一.     

Process analysis of characteristics of the boundary layer during a heavy haze pollution episode in an inland megacity, China

Ground observation data from 8 meteorological stations in Xi'an, air mass concentration data from 13 environmental quality monitoring sites in Xi'an, as well as radiosonde observation and wind profile radar data, were used in this study. Thereby, the process, causes and boundary layer meteorological characteristics of a heavy haze episode occurring from 16 to 25 December 2013 in Xi'an were analyzed. Principal component analysis showed that this haze pollution was mainly caused by the high-intensity emission and formation of gaseous pollutants (NO₂, CO and SO₂) and atmospheric particles (PM_2.5 (fine particles) and PM₁₀ (respirable suspended particle). The second cause was the relative humidity and continuous low temperature. The third cause was the allocation of the surface pressure field. The presence of a near-surface temperature inversion at the boundary layer formed favorable stratification conditions for the formation and maintenance of heavy haze pollution. The persistent thick haze layer weakened the solar radiation. Meanwhile, a warming effect in the urban canopy layer and in the transition zone from the urban friction sublayer to the urban canopy was indicated. All these conditions facilitated the maintenance and reinforcement of temperature inversion. The stable atmospheric stratification finally acted on the wind field in the boundary layer, and further weakened the exchange capacity of vertical turbulence. The superposition of a wind field with the horizontal gentle wind induced the typical air stagnation and finally caused the deterioration of air quality during this haze event.     

中国亚热带地区2000-2014年林火排放颗粒物时空动态变化

林火是森林生态系统重要干扰因子并对大气环境和人类健康有显著影响.该研究基于2000-2014年中国亚热带地区卫星火点数据,结合林业统计年鉴,估算各区域林火燃烧生物量,运用排放因子法,估算15年间中国亚热带地区林火排放颗粒物总量.研究结果表明,亚热带地区林火存在季节性差异,福建、广东、广西、湖南和江西林火主要集中在春、秋两季;贵州和云南林火主要集中在春季;浙江林火集中在春、夏两季.亚热带地区森林可燃物总燃烧量为333.92 Mt,污染物PM_2.5、OC、EC和TC总量分别为：698.33、338.18、40.04和378.22 kt,此外,各污染物排放在时间和空间上不均衡,各污染物排放量多集中在云南南部和东南部,湖南、贵州和广东交汇处,广东东南部和福建中部等区域;PM_2.5、OC、EC和TC在浙江、云南、贵州、湖南和江西呈显著增长趋势.林火释放PM_2.5与工业粉尘的排放比变化趋势总体呈上升趋势,说明森林火灾导致的颗粒物排放对大气环境影响力呈逐年增长趋势.该文通过对中国亚热带地区林火释放污染物的时空变化研究,为深入揭示林火对区域环境的影响提供数据支持.     

Comprehensive and high-resolution emission inventory of atmospheric pollutants for the northernmost cities agglomeration of Harbin-Changchun, China: Implications for local atmospheric environment management

Using a bottom-up estimation method, a comprehensive, high-resolution emission inventory of gaseous and particulate atmospheric pollutants for multiple anthropogenic sectors with typical local sources has been developed for the Harbin-Changchun city agglomeration (HCA). The annual emissions for CO, NOx, SO₂, NH₃, VOC_S, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, BC and OC during 2017 in the HCA were estimated to be 5.82 Tg, 0.70 Tg, 0.34 Tg, 0.75 Tg, 0.81Tg, 0.67 Tg, 1.59 Tg, 0.12 Tg and 0.26 Tg, respectively. For PM₁₀ and SO₂, the emissions from industry processes were the dominant contributors representing 54.7% and 49.5%, respectively, of the total emissions, while 95.3% and 44.5% of the total NH₃ and NOx emissions, respectively, were from or associated with agricultural activities and transportation. Spatiotemporal distributions showed that most emissions (except NH₃) occurred in November to March and were concentrated in the central cities of Changchun and Harbin and the surrounding cities. Open burning of straw made an important contribution to PM_2.5 in the central regions of the northeastern plain during autumn and spring, while domestic coal combustion for heating purposes was significant with respect to SO₂ and PM_2.5 emissions during autumn and winter. Furthermore, based on Principal Component Analysis and Multivariable Linear Regression model, air temperature, relative humidity, electricity and energy consumption, and the urban and rural population were optimized to be representative indicators for rapidly assessing the magnitude of regional atmospheric pollutants in the HCA. Such indicators and equations were demonstrated to be useful for local atmospheric environment management.     

基于星地同步观测的华北平原中部背景地区冬季霾污染过程

利用地基观测结果和多源卫星遥感观测,结合气象数据及HYSPLIT4后向轨迹模式,对华北平原中部背景地区(河南省郑州市中牟县东南郊)冬季霾事件的污染物特征和形成过程进行分析.综合观测时间为2014年12月13日~2015年1月16日,共有5次霾过程,占观测总天数的82%.地面监测结果显示,不同的污染过程污染物浓度变化曲线相似,O₃浓度在清洁天浓度较高;NO_x、SO₂、PM₁₀、PM_2.5呈较强正相关性,NO_x、SO₂与 PM₁₀相关系数0.64、0.57,与PM_2.5相关系数0.56、0.45;近地面污染物以细粒子污染物为主,其中又以气态污染物二次生成的细粒子为主.AMPLE地基激光雷达和CALIPSO数据表明,华北平原霾层中上部受浮尘影响,以粗粒子污染物为主.气象探空数据表明该地区冬季大气对流层稳定利于霾的维持,假相当位温垂直差、K指数、露点差与能见度相关系数分别为0.52、0.56和 0.38.分析近地面风速风向对霾过程的影响表明,该地区冬季以南方向静小风为主,风速与能见度相关系数为0.32 ,PM₁受东北方向污染源影响,PM_1~2.5及PM_2.5~10受西北方向污染源影响;结合高空风场分析,霾过程1受西北浮尘影响,霾过程5受南来水汽影响.通过后向轨迹分析,该地区冬季的低空污染传输主要来自东北和西北方向,其中东北方向区域传输来自河北与山东,占来源比例的14%,近距离污染传输主要来自站点以西的郑州、洛阳,约占来源比例的33%.     

Variability of Fire Behavior, Fire Effects, and Emissions in Scotch Pine Forests of Central Siberia

As part of the Russian FIRE BEAR (Fire Effects in the Boreal Eurasia Region) Project, replicated 4-ha experimental fires were conducted on a dry Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris)/lichen (Cladonia sp.)/feathermoss (Pleurozeum schreberi) forest site in central Siberia. Observations from the initial seven surface fires (2000-2001) ignited under a range of burning conditions quantified the different fuel consumption and fire behavior characteristics (e.g., rate of spread, fireline intensity, etc.) possible in this particular forest fuel type. Experimental results and dendrochronological study of local fire history both support the dominance of local fire regimes by low to moderate-intensity surface fires. Carbon released by the experimental fires ranged from 4.8 to 15.4 t C ha^{− 1} depending on fuel conditions and fire severity. Preliminary emission data show a strong correlation between carbon dioxide (CO₂) and carbon monoxide (CO) emissions, which should facilitate accurate estimates of fire impacts on atmospheric chemistry. Carbon concentration in smoke samples was related to fire severity. The short landscape-scale fire-return interval (50 years), combined with typically low fire severity, in pine ecosystems of central Siberia is often associated with low tree mortality and relatively rapid buildup of litter and understory fuels after a fire.     

一次大范围持续性灰霾天气的形成机理分析研究

针对一次持续性灰霾天气,以处于核心污染区域的江苏省镇江市的空气污染状况为研究对象,对大气污染整体水平、各污染物的浓度状况及其相关性的分析,并结合气象参数中的风速、相对湿度、大气能见度,初步揭示此次镇江市持续性灰霾产生的主要原因是城市中汽车尾气的大量排放和持续性静稳气象条件的存在,指出当污染物排放总量超过了区域环境容量时,在适当气象条件下就会形成灰霾天气。