3D numerical modelling of turbidity currents

During floods, the density of river water usually increases due to a subsequent increase in the concentration of the suspended sediment that the river carries, causing the river to plunge underneath the free surface of a receiving water basin and form a turbidity current that continues to flow along the bottom. The study and understanding of such complex phenomena is of great importance, as they constitute one of the major mechanisms for suspended sediment transport from rivers into oceans, lakes or reservoirs. Unlike most of the previous numerical investigations on turbidity currents, in this paper, a 3D numerical model that simulates the dynamics and flow structure of turbidity currents, through a multiphase flow approach is proposed, using the commercial CFD code FLUENT. A series of numerical simulations that reproduce particular published laboratory flows are presented. The detailed qualitative and quantitative comparison of numerical with laboratory results indicates that apart from the global flow structure, the proposed numerical approach efficiently predicts various important aspects of turbidity current flows, such as the effect of suspended sediment mixture composition in the temporal and spatial evolution of the simulated currents, the interaction of turbidity currents with loose sediment bottom layers and the formation of internal hydraulic jumps. Furthermore, various extreme cases among the numerical runs considered are further analyzed, in order to identify the importance of various controlling flow parameters.     

Modeling the buoyant flow of heated water discharged from surface and submerged side outfalls in shallow and deep water with a cross flow

In this study, a three-dimensional model was used to numerically study the buoyant flow, along with its mixing characteristics, of heated water discharged from the surface and submerged side outfalls in shallow and deep water with a cross flow. Hydraulic experimental data were used to evaluate the applicability of the model. The simulation results agree well with the experimental results, particularly, the jet trajectories, the dimensions of the recirculating zone, and the distribution of the dimensionless excess temperature. The level of accuracy of the simulation results of the present study is nearly identical to that of the results conducted by McGuirk and Rodi (1978). If the heated water is discharged into shallow water where the momentum flux ratio and the discharge densimetric Froude number are high, the submerged discharge method is better than the surface discharge method in terms of the scale of the recirculating zone and the minimum dilution. In deep water, where the momentum flux ratio and discharge densimetric Froude number are low, however, the submerged discharge method had few advantages. In shallow water, the discharge jet is deflected by the ambient cross flow, while forcing the ambient flow to bend towards the far bank for the full depth. For a submerged discharge in shallow water, the recirculating zone is the largest in the lowest layer but becomes smaller in the upper layer. As the water depth increases, the ambient flow goes over the jet and diminishes the blocking effect, thereby decreasing the bending of the jet.     

A simplified approach to address turbulence modulation in turbidity currents as a response to slope breaks and loss of lateral confinement

Turbidity currents traversing canyon-fan systems flow over bed slopes that decrease in the downstream direction. This slope decrease eventually causes turbidity currents to decelerate and enter a net-depositional mode. When the slope decrease is relatively rapid in the downstream direction, the turbidity current undergoes a concomitantly rapid and substantial transition. Similar conditions are found when turbidity currents debouch to fan systems with loss of lateral confinement. In this work a simplified approach to perform direct numerical simulation of continuous turbidity currents undergoing slope breaks and loss of lateral confinement is presented and applied to study turbulence modulation in the flow. The presence of settling sediment particles breaks the top–bottom symmetry of the flow, with a tendency to self-stratify. This self-stratification damps turbulence, particularly near the bottom wall, affecting substantially the flow’s ability to transport sediment in suspension. This work reports results on two different situations: turbidity currents driven by fine and coarser sediment flowing through a decreasing slope. In the case of fine sediment, after the reduction in the slope of the channel, the flow remains turbulent with only a modest influence on turbulence statistics. In the case of coarse sediments, after the change in slope, turbulence is totally suppressed.     

Gravity currents in rotating,wedge-shaped,adverse channels

Results are presented from a series of parametric experimental and analytical studies of the behaviour of dense gravity currents along rotating, up-sloping, wedge-shaped channels. High resolution density profile measurements at fixed cross- and along-channel locations reveal the outflowing bottom gravity currents to adjust to quasi-steady, geostrophically-balanced conditions along the channels, with the outflow layer thickness and cross-channel interface slope shown to scale with the inlet Burger number for all experimental conditions tested. A general analytical solution to the classic rotating hydraulics problem has been developed under the assumption of inviscid, zero-potential-vorticity conditions to model dense water flow through a triangular constriction and thus simulate the vee-channel configurations under consideration. Predictions from this zero-PV model are shown to provide good overall quantitative agreement with experimental measurements obtained both under hydraulically-controlled conditions at the channel exit and for subcritical conditions generated along the channel length. Quantitative discrepancies between measurements and analytical predictions are attributed primarily to assumptions and limitations associated with the zero-PV modelling approach adopted, as well as the to the rapid adjustment in outflow characteristics as the channel exit is approached, as characterised by the along-channel variation in densimetric Froude number for the outflows.     

Direct numerical simulations of boundary condition effects on the propagation of density current in wall-bounded and open channels

The propagation of density current under different boundary conditions is investigated using high resolution direct numerical simulations (DNS). A revised Kleiser and Schumann influence-matrix method is used to treat the general Robin type velocity boundary conditions and the related “tau” error corrections in the numerical simulations. Comparison of the simulation results reveals that the boundary conditions change the turbulent flow field and therefore the propagation of the front. This paper mainly focuses on the effects of boundary conditions and initial depth of the dense fluid. The differences in energy dissipation and overall front development in wall-bounded and open channels are examined. Through DNS simulations, it is evident that with the decrease of initial release depth ratio ( $D/H$ ), the effect of the top boundary becomes less important. In wall-bounded channels, there are three distinctive layers in the vertical distribution of energy dissipation corresponding to the contributions from bottom wall, interface, and top wall, respectively. In open channels, there are only two layers with the top one missing due to the shear free nature of the boundary. It is found that the energy dissipation distribution in the bottom layer is similar for cases with the same $D/H$ ratio regardless the top boundary condition. The simulation results also reveal that for low Reynolds number cases, the energy change due to concentration diffusion cannot be neglected in the energy budget. To reflect the real dynamics of density current, the dimensionless Froude number and Reynolds number should be defined using the release depth $D$ as the length scale.     

Turbulent air–water flows in hydraulic structures: dynamic similarity and scale effects

In hydraulic structures, free-surface aeration is commonly observed: i.e., the white waters. The air bubble entrainment may be localised (hydraulic jumps, plunging jets) or continuous along an interface (water jets, chutes). Despite recent advances, there are some basic concerns about the extrapolation of laboratory results to large size prototype structures. Herein the basic air bubble entrainment processes are reviewed and the relevant dynamic similarities are discussed. Traditionally, physical studies are conducted using a Froude similitude which implies drastically smaller laboratory Reynolds numbers than in the corresponding prototype flows. Basic dimensional analyses are developed for both singular and interfacial aeration processes. The results are discussed in the light of systematic investigations and they show that the notion of scale effects is closely linked with the selection of relevant characteristic air–water flow properties. Recent studies of local air–water flow properties highlight that turbulence levels, entrained bubble sizes and interfacial areas are improperly scaled based upon a Froude similitude even in large-size models operating with the so defined Reynolds numbers ρ _w × q _w/μ _w up to 5 E+5. In laboratory models, the dimensionless turbulence levels, air–water interfacial areas and mass transfer rates are drastically underestimated.     

Mixing dynamics of turbidity currents interacting with complex seafloor topography

Direct Numerical Simulations are employed to investigate the mixing dynamics of turbidity currents interacting with seamounts of various heights. The mixing properties are found to be governed by the competing effects of turbulence amplification and enhanced dissipation due to the three-dimensional topography. In addition, particle settling is seen to play an important role as well, as it affects the local density stratification, and hence the stability, of the current. The interplay of these different mechanisms results in the non-monotonic dependence of the mixing behavior on the height of the seamount. Regions of dilute lock fluid concentration generally mix more intensely as a result of the seafloor topography, while concentrated lock fluid remains relatively unaffected. For long times, the strongest mixing occurs for intermediate bump heights. Particle settling is seen to cause turbidity currents to mix more intensely with the ambient than gravity currents.     

Calculation of Entrainment in Density Jumps

The density jump in a two-layer channel flow of miscible fluids, in which one of the layers is infinitely deep and at rest, is analyzed using the momentum flux and mass flux conservation equations. The analysis yields simple equations relating the heights upstream and downstream of the jump with the upstream Froude number and the rate of entrainment into the moving layer, as well as a relation between the maximum possible entrainment and the upstream Froude number. The analysis also shows that when the flow down-stream of the jump is controlled by an obstruction or a contraction, the entrainment rate into the jump depends solely on the dimensionless obstruction height contraction ratio and the upstream Froude number.     

Flow structure of unconfined turbidity currents interacting with an obstacle

Driven by a growing importance to engineered structures, investigating the flow characteristics of turbidity currents interacting with a basal obstruction has become popular over the last three decades. However, research has focused on confined studies or numerical simulations, whereas in situ turbidity currents are typically unconfined. The present study investigates experimentally the velocity and turbulence structure of an unconfined turbidity current, in the immediate regions surrounding a rectangular obstacle. Initial density of the current, and substrate condition is varied. Through a novel technique of installing ultrasonic probes within the obstacle, the presence of a velocity recirculation region immediately upstream and downstream of the obstacle is revealed and confirmed with high-resolution imagery. This was found to be comparable to previous confined studies, suggesting that stream-wise velocity profile structure is somewhat independent of confinement. The obstacle was found to reduce velocity and turbulence intensity maxima downstream of the obstacle when compared with unobstructed tests.     

Comparison of dynamic subgrid-scale models for simulations of neutrally buoyant shear-driven atmospheric boundary layer flows

Several non-dynamic, scale-invariant, and scale-dependent dynamic subgrid-scale (SGS) models are utilized in large-eddy simulations of shear-driven neutral atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) flows. The popular Smagorinsky closure and an alternative closure based on Kolmogorov’s scaling hypothesis are used as SGS base models. Our results show that, in the context of neutral ABL regime, the dynamic modeling approach is extremely useful, and reproduces several establised results (e.g., the surface layer similarity theory) with fidelity. The scale-dependence framework, in general, improves the near-surface statistics from the Smagorinsky model-based simulations. We also note that the local averaging-based dynamic SGS models perform significantly better than their planar averaging-based counterparts. Lastly, we find more or less consistent superiority of the Smagorinsky-based SGS models (over the corresponding Kolmogorov’s scaling hypothesis-based SGS models) for predicting the inertial range scaling of spectra.     

Experimental investigation of meandering jets in shallow reservoirs

Meandering flows in rectangular shallow reservoirs were experimentally investigated. The characteristic frequency, the longitudinal wave length and the mean lateral extension of the meandering jet were extracted from the first paired modes, obtained by a proper orthogonal decomposition of the surface velocity field measured by large scale PIV. The depth-normalised characteristic lengths and the Strouhal number were then compared to the main dimensionless numbers characterizing the experiments: Froude number, friction number and reservoir shape factor. The normalised wave length and mean lateral extension of the meandering jet are neither correlated with the Froude number nor with the reservoir shape factor; but a clear relationship is found with the friction number. Similarly, the Strouhal number is found proportional to a negative power of the friction number. In contrast, the Froude number and the reservoir shape factor enable to predict the occurrence of a meandering flow pattern: meandering jets occur for Froude number greater than 0.21 and for a shape factor smaller than 6.2.     

Removing the boundary influence on negatively buoyant jets

A comprehensive laboratory study of negatively buoyant discharges is presented. Unlike previous studies, here the focus is on generating data sets where influences of the bottom boundary have been eliminated. There are significant discrepancies in the published dilution data for these flows and a contributing factor is the large variation in the bottom boundary condition. A Laser-induced Fluorescence system is employed to gather flow spread, peak concentration (minimum dilution) and trajectory data for a wide range of densimetric Froude numbers and initial discharge angles. Data from these experiments are compared with previously published data, along with predictions from integral models and a revised form of the previously published semi-analytical solutions. The new data sets are not distorted by mixing processes associated with the bottom boundary and therefore provide the basis for more meaningful assessments of the predictive capabilities of existing models, given that the influences of the bottom boundary on contaminant mixing are not incorporated into these models. In general the models assessed are able to predict key geometric quantities with reasonable accuracy, but their minimum dilution predictions are conservative. Importantly dilution at the return point shows a strong dependence on the initial discharge angle and this could have important implications for the design of discharge systems.     

Environmental controls of patch-reef growth and development

The effects of predominant currents on the morphology of coral reefs has been studied in the leeward patch reefs of Anegada, British Virgin Islands. Measurements of current velocity and direction and sediment characteristics together with mapping of approximately 31 patch reefs within a 2 km² area suggest that even under relatively low but constant current velocities (surface current 20 cm sec^-1) the major reef-building corals show definite distribution patterns on the reef. The currents also appear to be responsible, in part, for marked orientation and elongation of patch reefs in a north-west/ south-east direction and for a gradation of patch-reef type across the study area.     

Turbulent entrainment into fluid mud gravity currents

The entrainment of ambient water into non-Newtonian fluid mud gravity currents was investigated in this study. Constant volume release gravity currents were generated in a lock-exchange tank for a wide range of experimental conditions. A technique similar to the so-called light attenuation technique was used to find the boundary of the current, allowing for the calculation of both temporal and bulk entrainment parameters (in terms of the temporal and bulk entrainment velocities, respectively). It was found that the temporal entrainment velocity is dependent on different parameters in the different propagation phases. The slumping phase begins with an adjustment zone (henceforth, non-established zone) in which the temporal entrainment velocity is not a function of the current front velocity, followed by the established zone in which the temporal entrainment velocity is a function of the current front velocity. This dependence of the temporal entrainment velocity on the current front velocity carries through to the inertia-buoyancy phase. As expected, temporal entrainment velocity in the viscous-buoyancy phase was negligible in comparison to average entrainment velocity in the other phases. It is observed that the temporal entrainment characteristics in the non-established zone is governed by the competition between the entrainment-inhibiting density stratification effects and the entrainment-favouring effects of the Kelvin–Helmholtz billows that are quantified by the Richardson number and the Reynolds number of the gravity current, respectively. In the established zone, Reynolds number effects were observed to dominate over Richardson number effects in dictating temporal entrainment characteristics. A parameterization for the temporal entrainment velocity for non-Newtonian fluid mud gravity currents is developed based upon the experimental observations. This study also found that the bulk entrainment characteristics for the non-Newtonian fluid mud gravity currents can be parameterized by the Newtonian bulk entrainment parameterizations that rely solely on a bulk Richardson number. Interestingly, it was found that the non-Newtonian characteristics of the gravity current have little to no effect on the entrainment of the Newtonian ambient fluid.     

Feedbacks between bivalve density, flow, and suspended sediment concentration on patch stable states

We explore the role of biophysical feedbacks occurring at the patch scale (spatial scale of tens of meters) that influence bivalve physiological condition and affect patch stability by developing a numerical model for the pinnid bivalve, Atrina zelandica, in cohesive sediments. Simulated feedbacks involve bivalve density, flow conditions (assumed to be primarily influenced by local water depth and peak current speed), suspended sediment concentration (evaluated through a balance between background concentration, deposition, and erosion), and changes in the physiology of Atrina derived from empirical study. The model demonstrates that high bivalve density can lead to skimming flow and to a concomitant decrease in resuspension that will affect suspended sediment concentration over the patch directly feeding back on bivalve physiology. Consequently, for a given flow and background suspended sediment load, the stability of a patch directly depends on the size and density of bivalves in the patch. Although under a range of conditions patch stability is ensured independently of bivalve density, simulations clearly indicate that sudden changes in bivalve density or suspended sediment concentration can substantially affect patch structure and lead to different stable states. The model highlights the role of interactions between organisms, flow, and broader scale environmental conditions in providing a mechanistic explanation for the patchy occurrence of benthic suspension feeders.     

Numerical simulation of particle-driven gravity currents

Particle-driven gravity currents frequently occur in nature, for instance as turbidity currents in reservoirs. They are produced by the buoyant forces between fluids of different density and can introduce sediments and pollutants into water bodies. In this study, the propagation dynamics of gravity currents is investigated using the FLOW-3D computational fluid dynamics code. The performance of the numerical model using two different turbulence closure schemes namely the renormalization group (RNG) ${k-\epsilon}$ scheme in a Reynold-averaged Navier-Stokes framework (RANS) and the large-eddy simulation (LES) technique using the Smagorinsky scheme, were compared with laboratory experiments. The numerical simulations focus on two different types of density flows from laboratory experiments namely: Intrusive Gravity Currents (IGC) and Particle-Driven Gravity Currents (PDGC). The simulated evolution profiles and propagation speeds are compared with laboratory experiments and analytical solutions. The numerical model shows good quantitative agreement for predicting the temporal and spatial evolution of intrusive gravity currents. In particular, the simulated propagation speeds are in excellent agreement with experimental results. The simulation results do not show any considerable discrepancies between RNG ${k-\epsilon}$ and LES closure schemes. The FLOW-3D model coupled with a particle dynamics algorithm successfully captured the decreasing propagation speeds of PDGC due to settling of sediment particles. The simulation results show that the ratio of transported to initial concentration C _o /C _i by the gravity current varies as a function of the particle diameter d _s . We classify the transport pattern by PDGC into three regimes: (1) a suspended regime (d _s is less than about 16 μm) where the effect of particle deposition rate on the propagation dynamics of gravity currents is negligible i.e. such flows behave like homogeneous fluids (IGC); (2) a mixed regime (16 μm < d _s <40 μm) where deposition rates significantly change the flow dynamics; and (3) a deposition regime (d _s ?> 40 μm) where the PDGC rapidly loses its forward momentum due to fast deposition. The present work highlights the potential of the RANS simulation technique using the RNG ${k-\epsilon}$ turbulence closure scheme for field scale investigation of particle-driven gravity currents.     

Environmental Impact of Undular Tidal Bores in Tropical Rivers

A tidal bore impacts significantly on the estuarine ecosystem, although little is known on the flow field, mixing and sediment motion beneath tidal bores. In the absence of detailed systematic field measurements, a quasi-steady flow analogy was applied to investigate undular tidal bores with inflow Froude numbers between 1.25 and 1.6. Experimental results indicated that rapid flow redistributions occur beneath the free-surface undulations, with significant variations in bed shear stress between wave crests and troughs. Dynamic similarity was used to predict detailed flow characteristics of undular tidal bores. The effects of periodic loading on river sediments, scour of river bed and flow mixing behind the bore are discussed. A better understanding of these processes will contribute to better management practices in tidal bore affected rivers, including the Styx and Daly rivers in tropical Australia.     

苦草密度对扰动引起各形态磷释放的影响

采用富营养化水体底泥培育苦草Vallisneria natans,构建密度0、20、40、100、300、450、600株·m-2的沉水植物苦草,模拟一次大风浪扰动过程扰动24 h,然后静置126 h。监测扰动和静置过程中不同密度苦草条件下水体中各形态磷含量的变化,及水体浊度的变化规律和水体中悬浮颗粒物结构。实验结果表明：苦草密度为0、20和40株·m-2的实验组扰动初浊度和水体中各形态磷含量迅速升高,并在第10 h左右达到最大值,随后下降。当苦草密度大于100株·m-2时,水体中浊度和各形态磷含量扰动前后无明显变化。随着沉水植物密度的增加,扰动所引起沉积物磷释放总量呈指数曲线降低。不同密度的苦草水体悬浮物的中值粒径在扰动后3 h达到最大值,但是在扰动后期,中值粒径开始下降,并且在实验第36 h达到最小值。数学模拟表明水体中各形态磷的含量与扰动实验时间和苦草密度的关系函数模拟均达到极显著水平。本实验研究说明：沉水植物密度的增加能显著抑制沉积物中磷的释放,并且当苦草密度大于100株·m-2时扰动所引起的沉积物磷释放影响不显著。扰动所引起的悬浮物的粒度变小,比表面积增大,对磷的吸附能力就越强,是水体扰动后期磷含量降低的主要原因。     

A numerical (LES) investigation of a shallow-water, mid-latitude, tidally-driven boundary layer

We investigate turbulent mixing in a tidally driven, mid-latitude, shallow-water basin. The study is carried out numerically at a laboratory-scale, using large-eddy simulation. We compared the results of the simulation with those of a correspondent purely oscillatory flow (Stokes boundary layer). The effect of rotation on the flow dynamics is twofold. First, rotation gives rise to a mean spanwise flow that concurs to redistribute the turbulent energy among the Reynolds stresses, in particular between the horizontal directions, thus increasing the mixing across the water column and thickening the layer where developed turbulence is observable. Second, the presence of the horizontal component of the background vorticity (latitude effect) breaks the symmetry between the two semi-cycles of the oscillation, since turbulence results suppressed/enhanced during the first/second semi-cycle. These two effects significantly modify the turbulent characteristics with respect to the purely oscillating flow, although the mechanisms that generates turbulence present similar features. The qualitative agreement between our results and some measurements carried out in two sites with characteristics similar to the case analyzed suggests that the outcomes here provided may be of general use for the analysis of mid-latitude, neutrally stratified, shallow-water basins mainly driven by semi-diurnal tidal currents.