氨基酸侧链基团的特异性化学修饰对玉帘凝集素凝血活性和促淋巴细胞有丝分裂活性的影响

石蒜科植物玉帘 (ZephyranthescandidaHerb)的球茎 ,经生理盐水浸取、硫酸铵分级沉淀、DEAE -Sepharose和SephacrylS - 10 0分子筛层析 ,分离纯化出玉帘凝集素 (Z .candidaaggulutination ,ZCA) ,在SDS -PAGE显示单一蛋白带 ,经分子筛层析测得相对分子量 (Mr)约为 4 8× 10 3 .采用不同的化学修饰试剂对玉帘凝集素中的不同氨基酸侧链基团进行修饰 .结果表明 :Arg残基的修饰引起兔红细胞凝集活性下降 73% ,Trp残基的修饰引起兔红细胞凝集活性下降 36 % ;Ser/Thr残基的修饰导致促淋巴细胞有丝分裂活性下降 2 9.3% ,细胞分裂比率下降 7.2 % .图 3表 2参 12     

脆江蓠凝集素的部分性质及细胞凝集作用

脆江蓠藻体的磷酸盐缓冲液浸提液 ,经硫酸铵分级沉淀 ,再经DEAE -Sepharose和SephadexG 10 0层析纯化 ,得到脆江蓠凝集素 (GBL) .经测定该凝集素是一种分子量为 33.1× 10 3 ～ 33.8× 10 3 的糖蛋白 ,分子中含有 11%的中性糖 ,具有很高的耐热性 .GBL的凝血活性可被某些单糖或双糖及卵粘蛋白抑制 ,当浓度为 2 .34 μg/mL时引起兔红细胞凝集 ,浓度为 18.75 μg/mL时凝集绵羊红细胞 ,但对鸡、鸭、鸽子红细胞及人A、O、或B型血细胞没有凝集作用 .GBL能够凝集两种单细胞藻类 ,当浓度为 18.75 μg/mL时能凝集盐生杜氏藻 ,但藻细胞密度减少到 18.3× 10 4 /mL时不能发生凝集作用 ;GBL浓度为 9.37μg/mL时引起蛋白核小球藻凝集 ,但当藻细胞密度减少到 2 8.9× 10 4 /mL也不产生凝集反应 .GBL还能够凝集正常的枯草芽孢杆菌和经过热处理的酿酒酵母细胞 .图 3表 6参 14     

仙人掌多糖的提取分离与性质测定

仙人掌多糖具有降血糖、抗炎、免疫、抗溃疡等作用．经热水提取、乙醇沉淀、DEAE Sepharose fastflow离子交换色谱和SephadexG系列凝胶滤过色谱纯化得到5种仙人掌多糖纽分．采用醋酸纤维薄膜电泳检测多糖纯度,凝胶色谱测定相对分子质量,高效液相色谱测定糖的组成．经测定,它们的相对分子质量依次为2．0×10^3、1．0×10^6、4．0×10^3、9．2×10^5、5．0×10^3．ODP1由鼠李糖组成,ODP2可能由鼠李缚和葡萄糖组成,ODP4可能由鼠李糖和D-半乳糖组成．ODP3和ODP5分别由鼠李糖和一未知糖组分组成．表3,参12．     

红花石蒜球茎凝集素的纯化及部分性质

石蒜科植物红花石蒜(Lycorisradiata)球茎经生理盐水浸取、硫酸铵分级沉淀、DEAE-Sepharose和SephacrylS-100分子筛层析得到石蒜凝集素(L. radiataagglutinin, LRA).经SDS-PAGE检测为单一蛋白带,亚基相对分子量Mr为12×103,SephacrylS-100凝胶过滤测定Mr约为45×103,表明LRA是由4个相同亚基组成的蛋白.LRA能凝集兔红细胞和大肠杆菌,最低凝集浓度分别为0. 95μg/mL和1. 9μg/mL;LRA还能凝集啤酒酵母细胞.糖抑制实验显示,甘露聚糖和甲状腺球蛋白能有效抑制LRA的凝血活性.促淋巴细胞有丝分裂试验结果表明,LRA对外周血淋巴细胞具有很强的促有丝分裂能力;同时,LRA能有效地降低II型人类单纯疱疹病毒(HSV-II)对Vero细胞(非洲绿猴肾细胞)的感染,ρ(IC50 ) =5~10μg/mL之间,并且在500μg/mL时对正常Vero细胞无细胞毒性. 图1表6参15     

鳗弧菌(Vibrio anguillarum)胞外产物中蛋白酶的纯化及其性质

对鳗弧菌 (Vibrioanguillarum)胞外产物中蛋白酶的纯化方法及其性质进行了研究 .其中 ,蛋白酶的纯化步骤包括 :(1)硫酸铵沉淀 ;(2 )SephadexG 10 0凝胶过滤 ;(3)DEAE Sepharose色谱分离 ;(4)DEAE Cellulose (DE 32 )色谱分离 .经上述纯化步骤得到两种蛋白酶 ,经SDS PAGE分析 ,Mr分别为 37.4× 10 3 和 33.1× 10 3 .以偶氮酪蛋白 (azocasein)作底物测其水解酶活性 ,结果表明二者差别显著 ,前者明显高于后者 .而且 ,Mr37.4× 10 3 的蛋白酶在pH 7～ 10范围内均显示较高活性 ,在 4 0～ 6 0℃范围内稳定性好 .结果表明该蛋白酶是一种金属蛋白酶 .关于该蛋白酶对牙鲆(Paralichtysolivaceus)的毒性作用尚在研究之中 .图 6表 3参 17     

绵农小麦种子巯基蛋白酶抑制剂的纯化及性质研究

绵农11号小麦种子磨粉后的胚和麸皮，经溶液浸取和硫酸铵分级沉淀获得巯基蛋白酶抑制剂（CPI）粗品，再经木瓜蛋白酶－Sepharose4B亲和层析，DEAE－Sepharose离子交换层析和SephadexG－100分子筛层析，可获得两种CPI．通过SDS－PAGE或凝胶过滤法测得其Mr分别为18800［简称CPI（H）］和10500［简称CPI（L）］．它们在PAGE，SDS－PAGE和HPLC上均为单一蛋白带．CPI（L）和CPI（H）对木瓜白酶的抑制活性（ID50）分别为7．8×10－6mol／L和3．40×10－6mol／L．对无花果蛋白酶的抑制活性分别为9．5×10－5mol／L和5．8×10－6mol／L；CPI（H）对菠萝蛋白酶有弱抑制作用，但CPI（L）则无抑制作用；无论是CPI（L）或CPI（H）对胰蛋白酶、胰凝乳蛋白酶和胃蛋白酶均无抑制作用．CPI（H）的N－末端为Ile．CPI（H）和CPI（L）在pH2．0～11．0范围内和90℃处理5min，两种CPI的抑制活性均无变化；CPI（H）和CPI（L）对木爪蛋白酶的抑制曲线经Dixon作图法，得出CPI（H）为反竞争性抑制类型，而CPI（L）为竞争性抑制类型，其Ki值为8．32×10－6mol／L．     

核桃粕中抗氧化和糖苷酶抑制活性成分

为了发掘核桃粕潜在的利用价值,提取核桃粕的化学成分,测定其抗氧化活性和糖苷酶抑制活性并进行活性跟踪.结果显示,95%乙醇提取物具有一定的生物活性,抗氧化能力用DPPH法测定自由基清除率来表示,测得IC_(50)为1.482 8 mg/m L,抑制糖苷酶的能力用α-淀粉酶和α-葡萄糖苷酶的抑制活性表示,测得IC_(50)分别为6.679 8 mg/m L和0.3572 mg/m L.为了得到活性物质的最大提取效率,分别选用95%乙醇、纯水、70%乙醇、60%丙酮4种溶剂提取样品,并从提取得率、抗氧化活性、糖苷酶抑制活性等方面进行评估,最后选用70%乙醇为最佳提取溶剂.对70%乙醇粗提物进一步分相萃取,结合柱色谱、薄层色谱结晶等分离方式,从乙酸乙酯相中得到化合物Y-10-1,其清除自由基IC_(50)为0.0372 mg/m L,抑制α-淀粉酶和α-葡萄糖苷酶IC_(50)分别为0.017 9 mg/m L和0.617 3 mg/m L.抗氧化活性和糖苷酶抑制活性分别以维生素C和阿卡波糖作为阳性对照,测得阳性对照的抗氧化IC_(50)为0.100 2 mg/m L,α-淀粉酶抑制IC_(50)为1.462 mg/m L,α-葡萄糖苷酶抑制IC_(50)为0.165 1 mg/m L.经比较,Y-10-1的抗氧化活性和α-淀粉酶抑制活性均优于阳性对照.经液相和质谱鉴定,基本确定Y-10-1为没食子酸.本研究说明Y-10-1具有潜在的使用和开发价值.     

全氟辛烷磺酸（PFOS）对小鼠T、B淋巴细胞增殖功能和NK细胞活性的干扰效应研究（Disturbance of Mice Lymphocyte Proliferation Function and NK-cell Activity by Perfluorooctane Sulfonate（PFOS）Exposure）

为初步探讨全氟辛烷磺酸(Perfluorooctane sulfonate,PFOS)的细胞免疫毒性,采用每天1次经口灌胃染毒的方法,研究了PFOS经口重复剂量染毒对C57BL/6小鼠淋巴细胞增殖功能和NK细胞活性的影响.选择雄性C57BL/6小鼠40只,随机分为4组.实验组PFOS染毒剂量分别为5、10、20mg·kg-1(bw),对照组给予2%Tween-80.每天1次经口灌胃染毒7d后,制备脾脏T淋巴细胞悬液,以刀豆蛋白A(ConA)和大肠杆菌脂多糖(LPS)作为刺激源,采用MTT法检测T、B淋巴细胞增殖功能,乳酸脱氢酶释放法检测NK细胞活性.结果表明,10mg·kg-1和20mg·kg-1PFOS染毒组小鼠体重呈明显的下降趋势,且小鼠胸腺和脾脏指数显著低于对照组(p<0.05),而各PFOS染毒组小鼠肝脏指数均显著高于对照组(p<0.05).PFOS各染毒组T淋巴细胞的增殖功能均显著低于对照组(p<0.05);10mg·kg-1和20mg·kg-1PFOS染毒组小鼠NK细胞的活性显著降低(p<0.05).研究结果显示,PFOS暴露可降低小鼠淋巴细胞增殖功能和NK细胞活性,表明PFOS具有免疫抑制效应.     

猪精液酸性N-乙酰-β-D-氨基葡萄糖苷酶的纯化及性质水

以杜洛克猪精液为材料,采用硫酸铵分级沉淀、DEAE-32阴离子交换柱层析和Sephadex G-100分子筛柱层析纯化,获得纯化倍数为27.64、比活力为1 773.25 U mg~(-1)的酸性N-乙酰-β-D-氨基葡萄糖苷酶纯酶制剂.经SDS-聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳法测定,纯酶两种亚基相对分子质量分别为129.13×10~3和62.24×10~3.对其酶学性质的研究结果表明,酶的等电点为5.10,最适pH值为5.5,最适温度为60℃.酶在pH 3.6~9.2、温度10℃～55 ℃的范围内较稳定.以对硝基苯-N-乙酰-β-D-氨罐葡萄糖苷(pNP-NAG)为底物,测得米氏常数K_m为0.455 mmol L~(-1),最大反应速度V_m为17.34μmol L~(-1)min~(-1),活化能为41.70 kJ mol~(-1).图8表1参15     

喀斯特地区4种造林幼苗的抗旱性评价

以杜英、伞花木、侧柏、栾树1年生幼苗为试验材料,通过调控土壤含水量,设置1个无干旱胁迫对照和3个干旱胁迫强度处理(分别为每2、4、6、8 d浇水1次),比较4种幼苗叶片相对含水量(RWC),质膜相对透性(RMP),丙二醛(MDA)、游离脯氨酸(Pro)和可溶性糖(SS)含量,过氧化物酶(POD)活性的变化.结果表明,经干旱胁迫后,各供试树种叶片RWC减少,RMP增大,SS、Pro和MDA含量增加,POD活性变化趋势不同.利用隶属函数法对供试树种进行抗旱性综合评价,4个树种的抗旱性强弱为伞花木>侧柏>栾树=杜英.对6个生理牛化指标抗旱系数进行相关分析的结果表明,MDA含量、POD活性和Pro含量之间相关性较为紧密.对供试幼苗的测试指标做方差分析,并采用SSR法进行多重比较的结果显示,RMP、MDA含量、POD活性、Pro含量4个指标可用以评价供试树种苗期抗旱性强弱.     

Achieving Open Access to Conservation Science

Conservation science is a crisis discipline in which the results of scientific enquiry must be made available quickly to those implementing management. We assessed the extent to which scientific research published since the year 2000 in 20 conservation science journals is publicly available. Of the 19,207 papers published, 1,667 (8.68%) are freely downloadable from an official repository. Moreover, only 938 papers (4.88%) meet the standard definition of open access in which material can be freely reused providing attribution to the authors is given. This compares poorly with a comparable set of 20 evolutionary biology journals, where 31.93% of papers are freely downloadable and 7.49% are open access. Seventeen of the 20 conservation journals offer an open access option, but fewer than 5% of the papers are available through open access. The cost of accessing the full body of conservation science runs into tens of thousands of dollars per year for institutional subscribers, and many conservation practitioners cannot access pay‐per‐view science through their workplace. However, important initiatives such as Research4Life are making science available to organizations in developing countries. We urge authors of conservation science to pay for open access on a per‐article basis or to choose publication in open access journals, taking care to ensure the license allows reuse for any purpose providing attribution is given. Currently, it would cost $51 million to make all conservation science published since 2000 freely available by paying the open access fees currently levied to authors. Publishers of conservation journals might consider more cost effective models for open access and conservation‐oriented organizations running journals could consider a broader range of options for open access to nonmembers such as sponsorship of open access via membership fees. Obtención de Acceso Abierto a la Ciencia de la Conservación     

Some polyphagous Homoptera gain protection from their natural enemies by feeding on the toxic plantsSpartium junceum andErythrina corallodendrum (Leguminosae)

Summary Interactions were studied among alkaloid-containing legumes (Erythrina corallodendrum andSpartium junceum) and non-toxic plants (Citrus sinensis, Cucurbita moschata andEuphorbia tirucalli), several polyphagous homopterans,Aphis craccivora (Aphididae),Icerya purchasi, I. aegyptiaca (Margarodidae),Lepidosaphes ulmi (Diaspididae) andPlanococcus citri (Pseudococcidae), and some major natural enemies of these homopterans. Significant reductions in survival due to negative effects of alkaloid containing as compared with non-alkaloidal plants were recorded for the predatorsRodolia cardinalis andChilocorus bipustulatus, but not forCryptolaemus montrouzieri (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae),Chrysoperla carnea (Neuroptera: Chrysopidae) andSympherobius sanctus (Neuroptera: Sympherobiidae). The development time of the larvae or pupae ofR. cardinalis, C. carnea andS. sanctus was longer on the toxic plants than on the non-toxic ones. The percentage of parasitism ofA. craccivora collected from the non-alkaloidal plantsVicia palaestina andMelilotus albus was much higher than that onS. junceum. The parasitoid complexes ofA. craccivora differed between both plant groups. The nutritive value of honeydew ofI. purchasi andA. craccivora, as expressed by the life span ofEncyrtus infelix (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) adults, was also investigated. Life spans were significantly longer when the wasps fed on honeydew produced on non-alkaloidal plants (C. sinensis andPittosporum tobira) than on alkaloid containing plants whenI. purchasi — but notA. craccivora — was the producer. It is suggested that the chemical defense ofE. corallodendrum andS. junceum is exploited by polyphagous phytophages to reduce predation. In nature, population growth and density of four of the investigated homopterans are conspicuously high when they developed on the alkaloid containing plant species, and very low on non-alkaloid plants. The efficiency of their natural enemies may be reduced by sequestration of alkaloids (or other toxic plant compounds) or their transfer into excreted honeydew. Therefore it is assumed that a generalist phytophagous homopteran may be protected from its natural enemies, although at different rates of efficiency, if it can safely sequester the host allelochemical when it develops on toxic species within its host range.     

Rapid,recurring, structured survey versus bioblitz for generating biodiversity data and analysis with a multispecies abundance model

A bioblitz inexpensively and quickly generates biodiversity data, but bioblitzes are often conducted with haphazard, unreplicated sampling. Results tend to be taxonomically, geographically, or temporally biased, lack metadata, and consist of lists of observed taxa that do not enable further analyses or correction for imperfect detection. A rapid, recurring, structured survey (RRSS) uses a structured sampling design and temporal and spatial replication to survey randomly selected sites on a conservation property. We participated in a loosely structured bioblitz and a subsequent RRSS at Big Canoe Creek Nature Preserve in Springville (St. Clair County), Alabama (USA) to compare observed richness derived from the 2 survey approaches. The RRSS data structure enabled us to fit models that accounted for imperfect detection to estimate abundances, occupancy probabilities, and habitat associations. The loosely structured bioblitz data could not be used in such models. We present a new integrated multispecies abundance model that we applied to avian RRSS data. Our model extension enables estimation for the community, employs data augmentation to estimate the number of undetected species, and incorporates covariates. The RRSS generated a more comprehensive and less biased list of observed taxonomic richness than the loosely structured bioblitz (e.g., 73 vs. 45 bird species and 104 vs. 63 insect families from the RRSS vs. loosely structured bioblitz, respectively). Models fit to the RRSS data identified seasonal patterns in avian community composition and allowed for estimation of habitat–occupancy relationships for insect taxa. The RRSS protocol has potential for broad transferability as a standardized, quick, and inexpensive way to inventory biodiversity and estimate ecological parameters while providing an outreach opportunity.     

Compliance with and ecosystem function of biodiversity offsets in North American and European freshwaters

Land-use change via human development is a major driver of biodiversity loss. To reduce these impacts, billions of dollars are spent on biodiversity offsets. However, studies evaluating offset project effectiveness that examine components such as the overall compliance and function of projects remain rare. We reviewed 577 offsetting projects in freshwater ecosystems that included the metrics project size, type of aquatic system (e.g., wetland and creek), offsetting measure (e.g., enhancement, restoration, and creation), and an assessment of the projects’ compliance and functional success. Project information was obtained from scientific and government databases and gray literature. Despite considerable investment in offsetting projects, crucial problems persisted. Although compliance and function were related to each other, a high level of compliance did not guarantee a high degree of function. However, large projects relative to area had better function than small projects. Function improved when projects targeted productivity or specific ecosystem features and when multiple complementary management targets were in place. Restorative measures were more likely to achieve targets than creating entirely new ecosystems. Altogether the relationships we found highlight specific ecological processes that may help improve offsetting outcomes.     

Sequestration of cucurbitacin analogs by New and Old World chrysomelid leaf beetles in the tribe Luperini

Summary Two South American polyphagous leaf beetles,Diabrotica speciosa andCerotoma arcuata, selectively accumulated the bitter tasting compound 23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin D in their body after ingesting root tissues of cucurbit plants. Similarly, three Asian Cucurbitaceae-feeding specialists in the genusAulacophora were found to sequester the same compound. Cucurbitacin analogs were shown to deter feeding by a bird predator, indicating an allomonal role for these compounds in cucurbitacin-associated chrysomelid leaf beetles both of New and Old Worlds. The strong affinity to cucurbitacins, selective sequestration of the analogs and consequent protection from predators suggested an ecological adaptation mechanism developed in common among these two geographically isolated subtribes in the Luperini.     

Effects of Controlled Fire and Livestock Grazing on Bird Communities in East African Savannas

Abstract: In East Africa fire and grazing by wild and domestic ungulates maintain savannas, and pastoralists historically set fires and herded livestock through the use of temporary corrals called bomas. In recent decades traditional pastoral practices have declined, and this may be affecting biodiversity. We investigated the effects of prescribed fires and bomas on savanna bird communities in East Africa during the first and second dry seasons of the year (respectively before and after the rains that mark the onset of breeding for most birds). We compared abundance, richness, and community composition on 9‐ha burned plots, recently abandoned bomas, and control plots in the undisturbed matrix habitat over a 3‐year period. Generally, recently burned areas and abandoned bomas attracted greater densities of birds and had different community assemblages than the surrounding matrix. The effects of disturbances were influenced by interactions between primary productivity, represented by the normalized difference vegetation index, and time. Bird densities were highest and a greater proportion of species was observed on burned plots in the months following the fires. Drought conditions equalized bird densities across treatments within 1 year, and individuals from a greater proportion of species were more commonly observed on abandoned bomas. Yearly fluctuations in abundance were less pronounced on bomas than on burns, which indicate that although fire may benefit birds in the short term, bomas may have a more‐lasting positive effect and provide resources during droughts. Several Palearctic migrants were attracted to burned plots regardless of rainfall, which indicates continued fire suppression may threaten their already‐declining populations. Most notably, the paucity of birds observed on the controls suggests that the current structure of the matrix developed as a result of fire suppression. Traditional pastoralism appears critical to the maintenance of avian diversity in these savannas.     

A palaeo-hydrogeological model for arsenic contamination in southern and south-east Asia

An argument is presented in which areas of natural arsenic contamination of modern groundwaters throughout Asia have a common origin. Arsenic originally accumulated in oceanic ferro-manganoan sediments of the eastern Palaeo-Tethys. This was further concentrated through oceanic crustal extinction in what later became the south-east Chinese accreted mineralised terrain. Proto-Himalayan uplift of this area created the palaeo-drainage systems of the Ganges – Brahmaputra, Irrawaddy, Mekong, and Red Rivers, with consequent headwater erosion of arsenic-rich sediments. Their downstream deposition as immature and easily redistributed Neogene sandstones, silts, and iron-rich clays has created secondary and tertiary reservoirs of adsorbed and authigenic arsenic, from which the current arsenic-rich groundwaters have evolved. Considering river basins within the above palaeo-hydrogeological framework provides a basis for assessing the risk of arsenic in groundwater basins of south and south-eastern Asia.     

What Every Conservation Biologist Should Know about Economic Theory

Abstract: The last century has seen the ascendance of a core economic model, which we will refer to as Walrasian economics. This model is driven by the psychological assumptions that humans act only in a self‐referential and narrowly rational way and that production can be described as a self‐contained circular flow between firms and households. These assumptions have critical implications for the way economics is used to inform conservation biology. Yet the Walrasian model is inconsistent with a large body of empirical evidence about actual human behavior, and it violates a number of basic physical laws. Research in behavioral science and neuroscience shows that humans are uniquely social animals and not self‐centered rational economic beings. Economic production is subject to physical laws including the laws of thermodynamics and mass balance. In addition, some contemporary economic theory, spurred by exciting new research in human behavior and a wealth of data about the negative global impact of the human economy on natural systems, is moving toward a world view that places consumption and production squarely in its behavioral and biophysical context. We argue that abandoning the straightjacket of the Walrasian core is essential to further progress in understanding the complex, coupled interactions between the human economy and the natural world. We call for a new framework for economic theory and policy that is consistent with observed human behavior, recognizes the complex and frequently irreversible interaction between human and natural systems, and directly confronts the cumulative negative effects of the human economy on the Earth's life support systems. Biophysical economics and ecological economics are two emerging economic frameworks in this movement.     

Effects of Coffee Management on Deforestation Rates and Forest Integrity

Knowledge about how forest margins are utilized can be crucial for a general understanding of changes in forest cover, forest structure, and biodiversity across landscapes. We studied forest‐agriculture transitions in southwestern Ethiopia and hypothesized that the presence of coffee (Coffea arabica)decreases deforestation rates because of coffee's importance to local economies and its widespread occurrence in forests and forest margins. Using satellite images and elevation data, we compared changes in forest cover over 37 years (1973–2010) across elevations in 2 forest‐agriculture mosaic landscapes (1100 km² around Bonga and 3000 km² in Goma‐Gera). In the field in the Bonga area, we determined coffee cover and forest structure in 40 forest margins that differed in time since deforestation. Both the absolute and relative deforestation rates were lower at coffee‐growing elevations compared with at higher elevations (?10/20% vs. ?40/50% comparing relative rates at 1800 m asl and 2300–2500 m asl, respectively). Within the coffee‐growing elevation, the proportion of sites with high coffee cover (>20%) was significantly higher in stable margins (42% of sites that had been in the same location for the entire period) than in recently changed margins (0% of sites where expansion of annual crops had changed the margin). Disturbance level and forest structure did not differ between sites with 30% or 3% coffee. However, a growing body of literature on gradients of coffee management in Ethiopia reports coffee's negative effects on abundances of forest‐specialist species. Even if the presence of coffee slows down the conversion of forest to annual‐crop agriculture, there is a risk that an intensification of coffee management will still threaten forest biodiversity, including the genetic diversity of wild coffee. Conservation policy for Ethiopian forests thus needs to develop strategies that acknowledge that forests without coffee production may have higher deforestation risks than forests with coffee production and that forests with coffee production often have lower biodiversity value. Efectos de la Administración Cafetalera sobre las Tasas de Deforestación y la Integridad de los Bosques     

Cost‐effective conservation of an endangered frog under uncertainty

How should managers choose among conservation options when resources are scarce and there is uncertainty regarding the effectiveness of actions? Well‐developed tools exist for prioritizing areas for one‐time and binary actions (e.g., protect vs. not protect), but methods for prioritizing incremental or ongoing actions (such as habitat creation and maintenance) remain uncommon. We devised an approach that combines metapopulation viability and cost‐effectiveness analyses to select among alternative conservation actions while accounting for uncertainty. In our study, cost‐effectiveness is the ratio between the benefit of an action and its economic cost, where benefit is the change in metapopulation viability. We applied the approach to the case of the endangered growling grass frog (Litoria raniformis), which is threatened by urban development. We extended a Bayesian model to predict metapopulation viability under 9 urbanization and management scenarios and incorporated the full probability distribution of possible outcomes for each scenario into the cost‐effectiveness analysis. This allowed us to discern between cost‐effective alternatives that were robust to uncertainty and those with a relatively high risk of failure. We found a relatively high risk of extinction following urbanization if the only action was reservation of core habitat; habitat creation actions performed better than enhancement actions; and cost‐effectiveness ranking changed depending on the consideration of uncertainty. Our results suggest that creation and maintenance of wetlands dedicated to L. raniformis is the only cost‐effective action likely to result in a sufficiently low risk of extinction. To our knowledge we are the first study to use Bayesian metapopulation viability analysis to explicitly incorporate parametric and demographic uncertainty into a cost‐effective evaluation of conservation actions. The approach offers guidance to decision makers aiming to achieve cost‐effective conservation under uncertainty.