Dynamic material flow analysis of steel resources in Korea

Material flow analysis (MFA) is an evaluation technique that systematically identifies the flows and stocks of materials within predefined spatial and temporal boundaries. In this paper, the steel resources in Korea are investigated using dynamic MFA. Iron ore and steel scrap are added as raw material components during the production processes of steel, which is then used in a variety of product groups such as construction products, transportation equipment, machinery/metal products, electrical/electronic devices, and other products through fabrication and manufacturing processes. When such product groups are discarded, they are either recycled or landfilled. With consideration for the lifetimes of various product groups in conjunction with steel resource flows in Korea, dynamic MFA is conducted on the flows of steel stock change and annual scrap generation. By 2020, these two flows are expected to increase by as much as 40% and 30%, respectively, compared to 2008, with transportation equipment, in particular, envisaged to experience high growth. At the current recycling rate, however, it will be hard to meet future scrap demand. According to the scenario analysis, 100% of this future scrap demand can be supplied domestically if the recycling rate is increased to over 70% for all product groups, except construction products and transportation equipment, which already have high recycling rates. By 2020, the reduction in scrap importation costs is projected to offer a financial gain of 2.3 billion dollars.     

Material flow and industrial demand for palladium in Korea

Material flow analysis (MFA) requires the use of reliable data. In intermediate or the end industries that lack field survey data or actual statistical data, the integrated material flow analysis methodology uses bottom–up flow analysis for primary and secondary resources, and top–down flow analysis for the distribution structure. By combining the advantages of the top–down and bottom–up methods, the Integrated Material flow Analysis Methodology (IMFAM) can overcome the limitations of each methodology. Using the IMFAM, this study surveyed the material flow of palladium, and a platinoid element used in Korea. Palladium is produced as a byproduct in the copper refining process in Korea, and about 80% of used palladium as a three-way catalyst (TWC), i.e., an exhaust gas purifying system for automobiles. As automobile production in Korea is expected to continually increase, the usage of palladium is also expected to increase. Moreover, the increase in the use of printed circuit board (PCB) plating solutions is expected to further increase the use of palladium.This MFA results well represent the flow of palladium in Korea and give a strategy to secure palladium steadily.     

Amounts of non-fibrous components in recovered paper

Paper and board recycling is now a central issue in papermaking. Understanding of material flows, as a part of the total production chain, as well as, fibrous and non-fibrous component flows needs further clarification. These flows are studied at a European level, with special focus on Germany and Sweden. Non-fibrous components are discussed in terms of a material which hampers the processing of paper and board. Resource-efficiency improvements, in conjunction with economic benefits, are sought and recycling has been able to fulfil both of these. The main drivers to maximize the use of recovered paper in paper and board manufacturing, have been improved over the last decades. These drivers are cost, environmental image and good technical properties to be used as raw material.The increased recycling rate has reduced the quality of the collected paper, produced recycled paper, and replaced virgin pulp. Also, recycling as a process, like deinking, produces large amounts of waste material that has challenges to find proper utilization. These problem areas are addressed in this paper, too.One focus area in the analysis of statistical information is an estimation of the share of non-fibrous components and fibre volumes of paper in Europe (EU) for the year 2010.     

The Austrian silver cycle: A material flow analysis

Silver (Ag) is a precious metal of increasing importance. Besides its classical use as a valuable, it is applied in an increasing number of industrial products due to its advantageous chemical properties. As silver is considered a non-renewable resource, it is becoming more and more relevant for individual countries to gain a better understanding of their domestic silver material flows. In our study, a material flow analysis (MFA) of silver in Austria for the period 2012 was carried out, the results of which reveal the major silver flows in the country as well as the imports and exports outside the country. As there is no extraction of silver ore in Austria, the country is depending on silver imports and recycling. Furthermore, the role of the silver coin production that is of considerable importance in Austria is highlighted. The results may help, on a policy level, to determine silver use indicators and support the development of strategies for resource, waste and environmental management of silver. On a modeling level, the results may function as an example for future silver MFA studies in different countries.     

Assessment of physical economy through economy-wide material flow analysis in developing Uzbekistan

In this paper, we assess the physical dimensions of Uzbekistan's economy during 1992–2011 by using the economy-wide material flow analysis (EW-MFA) method, which is an internationally recognized tool for such assessments. There have been a number of studies using methodological standardization of EW-MFA, but to the best of our knowledge, it has never been used to assess the metabolism of Central Asian economies, especially, in this case, the Republic of Uzbekistan.Our analysis strives to empirically evaluate macroscopic economic activities by considering the accounting of material flows. The material flows data-set comprises of consistent data for domestic extraction, imports, and exports, as well as other derived MFA-based indicators.The derived indicators are internationally compared for further evaluation of national economic development performance in a given period. The indicators of direct material input (DMI) and total material requirements (TMR) showed a slight increase in 1992–2011 with an average annual increase of 2.79% and 2.34%. The trends of TMR, DMI, domestic material consumption (DMC) and material efficiency, which is indicated by GDP/DMI, displayed lower values than other industrialized countries referenced in the international comparison. Although national economic performance data showed particularly remarkable success, indicators measuring material inputs and DMC reveal an insignificant increase during the period of study. During the second decade of study period, relative decoupling has occurred which indicated that the economic indicator (GDP) grows faster than DMC and other macro indicators grow.     

Country-scale phosphorus balancing as a base for resources conservation

In order to effectively conserve the non-renewable resource phosphorus (P), flows and stocks of P must be known at national, regional and global scales. P is a key non-renewable resource because its use as fertilizer cannot be substituted posing a constraint on the global food production in the long-term. This paper presents a methodology to establish country-wide P balances that emphasises resource use. We develop a material flow analysis (MFA) model that comprises all relevant flows and stocks of P in five subsystems, seven processes and 36 material flows. For quantification, statistical data from economic and agricultural sources as well as available information about P partitioning in natural and anthropogenic processes are used. Special attention is paid to data gaps and uncertainties. The model was tested in two case studies on P management in Turkey and Austria. MFA appears to be a tool well suited for establishing country-wide P balances, provided that national statistics are well-structured and accessible. If a common approach is used for modelling P-flows and stocks, regional and national balances can be compared and linked towards larger scale P balances for an improved management of the resource.     

Material efficiency: A white paper

For most materials used to provide buildings, infrastructure, equipment and products, global stocks are still sufficient to meet anticipated demand, but the environmental impacts of materials production and processing, particularly those related to energy, are rapidly becoming critical. These impacts can be ameliorated to some extent by the ongoing pursuit of efficiencies within existing processes, but demand is anticipated to double in the next 40 years, and this will lead to an unacceptable increase in overall impacts unless the total requirement for material production and processing is reduced. This is the goal of material efficiency, and this paper aims to stimulate interest in the area. Four major strategies for reducing material demand through material efficiency are discussed: longer-lasting products; modularisation and remanufacturing; component re-use; designing products with less material. In industrialised nations, these strategies have had little attention, because of economic, regulatory and social barriers, which are each examined. However, evidence from waste management and the pursuit of energy efficiency suggests that these barriers might be overcome, and an outline of potential mechanisms for change is given. In bringing together insights into material efficiency from a wide range of disciplines, the paper presents a set of 20 open questions for future work.     

国内外造纸行业水污染排放标准比较研究

中国是造纸大国,制浆造纸在中国属于重污染行业。2008年国家发布的《制浆造纸工业水污染物排放标准》对整个行业可能排放的污染物提出了要求。本文通过将该标准与国外造纸行业相关的水污染物排放标准进行比较研究,找出我国标准与国外的差别,并为完善我国造纸行业水污染物排放标准提出建议。     

Cement and concrete flow analysis in a rapidly expanding economy: Ireland as a case study

A national material flow model for concrete, the most popular construction material in Ireland, was developed based on the framework of material flow analysis. Using this model the Irish concrete cycle for the year 2007 was constructed by analysing the material life cycle of concrete which consists of the three phases of: production (including extraction of raw materials and manufacture of cement), usage (ready-mix and other products) and waste management (disposal or recovery). In this year, approximately 35 million metric tonnes of raw materials were consumed to produce 5 million metric tonnes of cement and 33 million metric tonnes of concrete. Concrete production was approximately 8 metric tonnes per capita. By comparison, the concrete waste produced in that year was minimal at only 0.3 million metric tonnes. Irish building stock is young and there was little demolition of structures in the year of study. However this build up of construction stock will have implications for the future waste flows when the majority of stock built in the last decade (43% of residential stock was constructed in the last 15 years) reaches its end of life.     

Understanding the anthropogenic phosphorus pathway with substance flow analysis at the city level

Excessive input of phosphorus into natural water bodies as a result of anthropogenic processes is an escalating factor that leads to eutrophication. Hence, quantifying the pathway of phosphorus throughout the socioeconomic system is essential for the selection of appropriate measures to mitigate phosphorus discharge. The study develops an analytical model of anthropogenic phosphorus flows within a socioeconomic system based on substance flow analysis. The model consists of five major subsystems: the phosphorous chemical industry, agriculture, animal feeding, human consumption, and waste management. The results show that the total input and output of phosphorus in Chaohu City over 2008 are 8517.70 ton (t) and 4682.76 t, respectively. The estimation of phosphorus discharged into local surface water is 544.22 t, which primarily comes from agriculture (391.99 t, 72.03%), followed by large-scale farming (55.70 t, 10.23%), rural consumption (56.81 t, 10.44%), urban consumption (30.42 t, 5.59%), and waste management (9.30 t, 1.71%). Intensive input of fertilizers in agricultural practices was identified as the most important source of phosphorus load on local surface water. Hence, we propose that the eutrophication of local water bodies could be addressed by optimizing local industrial structure, developing ecological and organic-based agriculture, and improving waste collection and disposal practices.     

Based on material flow analysis: Value chain analysis of China iron resources

Iron is an important basic resource for national economic development in China. It is of great strategic importance for the sustainable development of China's economy to study the utilization and circulation status of iron resources. In this paper, using the material flow and value chain analysis method, we quantitatively analyzed the value flow of iron resources in China. According to the value chain and price theory of element M, a value stream diagram of iron resources corresponding to the substance flow chart was plotted. Based on the previous material flow analysis result of iron resources, the diagram quantitatively depicted the value of the circulating flow of iron resources in China in 2011. The results show that by recycling materials, the value of the circulating flow of iron resources can bring considerable economic benefits to both producers and consumers. In the production stage, the expenditures of the entire economic system was reduced by 91.77 billion RMB by circulating iron and the income increased by 95 billion RMB by recycling home scrap, which was generated in the crude steel production stage. In the use stage of iron and steel products, the recycling of old scrap enabled the entire economic system to recover 370.78 billion RMB. It should be noted that analysis within a single framework of physical and economic characteristics of iron resources in the economic system can further extend the research chain of substance flow and value flow at the macro level, enhancing the economic value of substances flow research. In addition, by tracking and depicting the value flow cycle of elements, the improvement potentials and the value situations can be determined to provide useful information for conducting processing and technological innovation for waste minimization.     

Modification of uncertainty analysis in adapted material flow analysis: Case study of nitrogen flows in the Day-Nhue River Basin,Vietnam

Nitrogen flows impacted by human activities in the Day-Nhue River Basin in northern Vietnam have been modeled using adapted material flow analysis (MFA). This study introduces a modified uncertainty analysis procedure and its importance in MFA. We generated a probability distribution using a Monte Carlo simulation, calculated the nitrogen budget for each process and then evaluated the plausibility under three different criterion sets. The third criterion, with one standard deviation of the budget value as the confidence interval and 68% as the confidence level, could be applied to effectively identify hidden uncertainties in the MFA system. Sensitivity analysis was conducted for revising parameters, followed by the reassessment of the model structure by revising equations or flow regime, if necessary. The number of processes that passed the plausibility test increased from five to nine after reassessment of model uncertainty with a greater model quality. The application of the uncertainty analysis approach to this case study revealed that the reassessment of equations in the aquaculture process largely changed the results for nitrogen flows to environments. The significant differences were identified as increased nitrogen load to the atmosphere and to soil/groundwater (17% and 41%, respectively), and a 58% decrease in nitrogen load to surface water. Thus, modified uncertainty analysis was considered to be an important screening system for ensuring quality of MFA modeling.     

Carbon flows and carbon use in the German anthroposphere: An inventory

Today, global climate change is one of the most urgent environmental problems. The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂) has to be stabilised by significant reductions of CO₂ emissions in the next decades to keep the expected temperature rise within tolerable borders. Efforts exceeding the implemented measures to reduce CO₂ emissions in Germany are desirable. An important pre-condition for such measures is a scientific-based inventory of the sources, sinks, and use of carbon.In this paper, we present CarboMoG, i.e. Carbon Flow Model of Germany. CarboMoG is a carbon flow model covering carbon flows, carbon sources and sinks in Germany and the German anthroposphere, showing concurrent energy and non-energy use of carbon sources.The model consists of seven modules in German anthroposphere following the German classification of economic sectors. Carbon flows to and from atmosphere and lithosphere as well as imports and exports were included into the model. The model comprises roughly 220 material flows determined based on material flow procedures for the base year 2000.Main sources of carbon are fossil energy carriers from lithosphere and uptake of CO₂ by crops (52% resp. 48% of all carbon sources). The model calculations show that import of energy carriers dominates total carbon import to Germany (82%). Total non-energy use of carbon in Germany is significantly higher than energy use (386 Mt C and 230 Mt C, resp.). Carbon throughput of Industry is greatest (about 224 Mt C input), followed by Energy (about 129 Mt C input). Agriculture and Forestry & Industry show the highest figure for non-energy use of carbon, energy use of carbon is largest in the Energy sector. Emissions of CO₂ to atmosphere account for 94% of all carbon flows to sinks in Germany. Carbon accumulates in German anthroposphere 5 Mt C in 2000.     

Substance flow analysis of cadmium in Korea

Substance flow analysis (SFA) of cadmium in Korea was carried out to analyze and predict cadmium flows, stocks, and future flows using both static and dynamic models. Cadmium is widely used in industry due to its strong corrosion and chemical resistance at high temperature, excellent electrical conduction, and low melting-point. Cadmium is produced as a by-product from the production processes for zinc and lead ingots. It is used for Ni–Cd batteries, polyvinylchloride (PVC) stabilizers, alloy products, pigments, and others.This examines the current cadmium flows and stocks using static SFA, and aims in predicting the future cadmium flows and stocks in Korea using dynamic SFA. From the static model, 2820 tonnes of cadmium ingots were produced, 0.04 tonnes imported and 2740 tons exported in Korea in 2009. In addition, 81 tonnes of cadmium were used in the manufacture of cadmium products: 80 tonnes for cadmium alloy products and 1 tonne for others. Finally, 175 tonnes of cadmium were imported into Korea for Ni–Cd batteries, 140 tonnes for PVC stabilizers, and 55 tonnes for pigments. Cadmium was used in various industries such as construction (221 tonnes), electrics and electronics (130 tonnes – including cadmium in imported products), transportation (30 tonnes) and others (30 tonnes). In 2009, 430 tonnes of industrial cadmium were discharged, with 10 tonnes being recycled and 420 tonnes discarded.From the dynamic model, cadmium stocks in Korea were estimated to be about 5120 tonnes in 2009. The industrial consumption in 2030 will be reduced to only 110 tonnes, only 27% of the current consumption of 410 tonnes in 2009, due to DIRECTIVE 2002/95/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT of 27 January 2003 on the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (RoHS). One possible solution to the Cd oversupply problem is use in cadmium telluride photovoltaic (CdTe PV) systems which have low life cycle Cd emissions (0.02 g Cd/GWh) and high end-of-life semiconductor recycling yields (95%).     

Material flow analysis of lubricating oil use in California

Petroleum lubricating oils, used throughout the economy, are distinct among petroleum products in their capacity to be recovered and recycled at the end of their useful life. Used lubricating oil is regulated at the state and federal level because of concerns about environmental impacts arising from improper disposal, although rates of recovery are not known. We present a material flow analysis of lubricants through California's economy in the years 2007–2012. We introduce a novel technique for computing aggregate waste generation from a collection of hazardous waste manifest records, and apply it in order to determine a recovery rate for used oil and to estimate the quantity of oil managed informally in the state. The records also offer a detailed view of the fate of used oils after they are recovered. We find that around 62% of lubricants are recoverable at end of life, of which 70–80% is being recovered. This rate shows a slight downward trend. If the trend is accurate, measures should be taken to improve the performance of the used oil management system. Policy opportunities exist to reduce the quantity of oil managed informally through improving access to responsible used oil management methods. These include increasing the collection of used oil from industrial sources as well as “do it yourself” oil changes, expanding in-state reprocessing capacity, and promoting increased out-of-state reprocessing of used oil. Our methods introduce new possibilities to make use of direct observation in material flow analysis, potentially improving data availability and quality and increasing the relevance of material flow methods in policy applications.     

Toxic releases from paper made with recovered wastepaper versus virgin wood fiber: A research note

Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) data were used to compare average releases (kilograms per metric ton) of paper mills using primarily recovered wastepaper versus mills using primarily virgin wood fiber. Annual releases, for 79 mills, of chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloroform, acids (hydrochloric and sulfuric), volatile organics (methyl ethyl ketone, methanol, and acetone), and ammonia were compared over the years 1987–1992. Both types of mills reported generally lower toxic releases in 1992 than in 1987; however, toxic releases in all categories were significantly lower from mills using recovered wastepaper than from mills using virgin wood fiber, strongly demonstrating that recycling has added benefits beyond reduced resource consumption. These results suggest that environmental policy should concentrate as much on increasing demand for recycled paper and developing wastepaper collection infrastructure as it does on end-of-pipe pollution abatement.     

A comprehensive set of resource use indicators from the micro to the macro level

Many of today's most urgent environmental problems arise from increasing volumes of worldwide production and consumption and the associated use of natural resources, including renewable and non-renewable raw materials, energy, water and land. Solid indicators to measure different dimensions of anthropogenic resource use are essential for designing appropriate policy measures for a sustainable management of these resources. Based on a brief review of the current state of the art of resource use indicators, this paper suggests a new set of complementary resource use indicators, combining existing measures for resource use. The suggested indicator set covers the core resource input categories of materials, water and land area and includes the output category of greenhouse gas emissions. This set can be applied consistently from the micro level of products and companies up to the macro level of countries and world regions. All suggested indicators take a life-cycle wide perspective on production and consumption activities. This set of indicators deals with the issue of the overall scale of the human production and consumption system. It can be regarded as the general indicator framework, based on which more specific indicators, for example, on different environmental impacts related to natural resource use, can be calculated.     

Deinking of recycled pulps using column flotation: energy and environmental benefits

Deinking of recycled pulps is an important operation intended to provide pulps appropriate for making paper and paperboard products from recycled wastepaper. Conventionally, deinking of recycled pulp is conducted in a flotation cell equipped with an agitator. We have investigated the applicability of a new flotation cell based on a column without an agitator present to accomplish the deinking of typical wastepaper feedstocks and also a feedstock consisting of rejects from a conventional deinking cell. Experimental results on the deinking operation indicate that it is possible to achieve deinking of a mixture of photocopier and laserprinted paper in the column flotation cell. The performance of the column, as measured by the resultant pulp’s brightness and ink particle size distributions, is comparable to that of a conventional laboratory cell which incorporates severe agitation regimens. Thus, it is found that the agitator can be eliminated by using the column flotation design which could yield significant electrical energy savings in addition to savings in capital costs and other operational and maintenance costs. A series of deinking experiments were also performed on a feedstock consisting of rejected waste obtained from a conventional cell in a pilot plant. We found that deinking of the rejected waste could yield significant usable fiber. This indicates the potential of the column flotation technique in enhancing the reuse of a waste component thus reducing the volume of deinking waste rejected into the environment.     

Biomass use in chemical and mechanical pulping with biomass-based energy supply

The pulp and paper industry is energy intensive and consumes large amounts of wood. Biomass is a limited resource and its efficient use is therefore important. In this study, the total amount of biomass used for pulp and for energy is estimated for the production of several woodfree (containing only chemical pulp) and mechanical (containing mechanical pulp) printing paper products, under Swedish conditions. Chemical pulp mills today are largely self-sufficient in energy while mechanical pulp mills depend on large amounts of external electricity. Technically, all energy used in pulp- and papermaking can be biomass based. Here, we assume that all energy used, including external electricity and motor fuels, is based on forest biomass. The whole cradle-to-gate chain is included in the analyses. The results indicate that the total amount of biomass required per tonne paper is slightly lower for woodfree than for mechanical paper. For the biomass use per paper area, the paper grammage is decisive. If the grammage can be lowered by increasing the proportion of mechanical pulp, this may lower the biomass use per paper area, despite the higher biomass use per unit mass in mechanical paper. In the production of woodfree paper, energy recovery from residues in the mill accounts for most of the biomass use, while external electricity production accounts for the largest part for mechanical paper. Motor fuel production accounts for 5–7% of the biomass use. The biomass contained in the final paper product is 21–42% of the total biomass use, indicating that waste paper recovery is important. The biomass use was found to be about 15–17% lower for modelled, modern mills compared with mills representative of today's average technology.     

Quantification of Chinese steel cycle flow: Historical status and future options

China is the largest steel producer and consumer around the world. Quantifying the Chinese steel flow from cradle to grave can assist this industry to fully understand its historical status and future options on production route transformation, capacity planning, scrap availability, resource and energy consumption. With the help of the systematic methods combined dynamic MFA (material flow analysis) with scenario analysis, the Chinese steel cycle during the first half of the 21st century was quantified and several thought-provoking conclusions were draw. In the past decade, lots of pig iron or molten iron was fed into EAF (electric arc furnace) and the scrap usage of EAF fluctuated slightly. Thus, the real scrap-EAF route share is much lower than the EAF production share. On the other hand, we reconfirmed that the scrap supply in China will rise significantly in the future. Meanwhile, the secondary production route share will grow sharply and exceed primary production share before or after 2050 depending on our options. The scrap recycling rate and construction's lifetime play a vital role in this trend. In the end, an intensive discussion on production capacities’ adjustment and energy and resource consumption was conducted and relative policy suggestions were given. It is worth noting that scrap usage is crucial to future energy saving and emissions reduction of Chinese steel sector and its energy consumption might peak as early as 2015.