The shadow price of substitutable sulfur in the US electric power plant: a distance function approach

Given restrictions on sulfur dioxide emissions, a feasible long-run response could involve either an investment in improving boiler fuel-efficiency or a shift to a production process that is effective in removing sulfur dioxide. To allow for the possibility of substitution between sulfur and productive capital, we measure the shadow price of sulfur dioxide as the opportunity cost of lowering sulfur emissions in terms of forgone capital. The input distance function is estimated with data from 51 coal-fired US power units operating between 1977 and 1986. The indirect Morishima elasticities of substitution indicate that the substitutability of capital for sulfur is relatively high. The overall weighted average estimate of the shadow price of sulfur is -0.076 dollars per pound in constant 1976 dollars.     

International trade and air pollution: estimating the economic costs of air emissions from waterborne commerce vessels in the United States

Although there is a burgeoning literature on the effects of international trade on the environment, relatively little work has been done on where trade most directly effects the environment: the transportation sector. This article shows how international trade is affecting air pollution emissions in the United States' shipping sector. Recent work has shown that cargo ships have been long overlooked regarding their contribution to air pollution. Indeed, ship emissions have recently been deemed "the last unregulated source of traditional air pollutants". Air pollution from ships has a number of significant local, national, and global environmental effects. Building on past studies, we examine the economic costs of this increasing and unregulated form of environmental damage. We find that total emissions from ships are largely increasing due to the increase in foreign commerce (or international trade). The economic costs of SO2 pollution range from dollars 697 million to dollars 3.9 billion during the period examined, or dollars 77 to dollars 435 million on an annual basis. The bulk of the cost is from foreign commerce, where the annual costs average to dollars 42 to dollars 241 million. For NOx emissions the costs are dollars 3.7 billion over the entire period or dollars 412 million per year. Because foreign trade is driving the growth in US shipping, we also estimate the effect of the Uruguay Round on emissions. Separating out the effects of global trade agreements reveals that the trade agreement-led emissions amounted to dollars 96 to dollars 542 million for SO2 between 1993 and 2001, or dollars 10 to dollars 60 million per year. For NOx they were dollars 745 million for the whole period or dollars 82 million per year. Without adequate policy responses, we predict that these trends and costs will continue into the future.     

The economic effects of stratospheric ozone depletion on U.S. agriculture: a preliminary assessment

The adverse effects of stratospheric ozone depletion on human health and welfare is a major environmental concern. One potential welfare effect is reduction in plant productivity, including agricultural crops, due to increased UV-B radiation and tropospheric ozone formation. This paper evaluates the economic effects of potential changes in crop yields due to hypothetical depletions in stratospheric ozone over regions of the U.S.A. Results suggest that increases in tropospheric ozone due to a 15 per cent stratospheric ozone depletion may cause economic losses of around 0·9 billion dollars. Combined effects of both tropospheric ozone and UV-B radiation range from 1·3 to 2·5 billion dollars. These estimates are preliminary, given the high degree of uncertainty in key plant science and aerometric data.     

Evaluating agricultural nonpoint-source pollution programs in two Lake Erie tributaries

During the past three decades, numerous government programs have encouraged Lake Erie basin farmers to adopt practices that reduce water pollution. The first section of this paper summarizes these state and federal government agricultural pollution abatement programs in watersheds of two prominent Lake Erie tributaries, the Maumee River and Sandusky River. Expenditures are summarized for each program, total expenditures in each county are estimated, and cost effectiveness of program expenditures (i.e., cost per metric ton of soil saved) are analyzed. Farmers received nearly $143 million as incentive payments to implement agricultural nonpoint source pollution abatement programs in the Maumee and Sandusky River watersheds from 1987 to 1997. About 95% of these funds was from federal sources. On average, these payments totaled about $7000 per farm or about $30 per farm acre (annualized equivalent of $2 per acre) within the watersheds. Our analysis raises questions about how efficiently these incentive payments were allocated. The majority of Agricultural Conservation Program (ACP) funds appear to have been spent on less cost-effective practices. Also, geographic areas with relatively low (high) soil erosion rates received relatively large (small) funding.     

Impacts on air pollution in urban areas

Environmental management involves controlling various forms of pollution to levels that do not pose a threat to the health of the people and the environment in general. This paper presents a framework to analyze sources of local air pollution in cities. Using an OLS model, an investigation is performed of the relationship among the concentrations of air pollutants [more precisely, concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), dust, nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon oxide (CO) and ozone (O₃)], economic activities, and meteorology. Time series analysis leads to a model, that explains a high degree of the variance in the air pollution data. The model is applied to daily time series from three measurement stations in innsbruck, Austria. Estimation results of the model generally fit with the expected relations. Space heating influences SO₂, dust, and NO, while NO₂ levels are primarily affected by traffic. These results also indicate interdependent relations among the pollutants NO, NO₂, O₃, and CO; O₃ levels depend on temperature and sunshine.     

Phenols and flavonoids in Aleppo pine needles as bioindicators of air pollution

The aim of the present study is to assess whether certain ecophysiological responses (contents of total phenols, total proanthocyanidins, and total and simple flavonols), in the needles of Aleppo pines (Pinus halepensis Mill.) may be valid bioindicators for the assessment of the air quality. Samples were taken at five natural sites polluted by various pollutants (NO, NO2, other NOx, SO2, and O3). The results show a decrease in total phenol concentrations with levels of nitrogen oxide pollutions (significant negative correlations between the total phenol concentrations and concentrations of NO, NO2, and other NOx). Total flavonoids (total flavonols and proanthocyanidins) are useful bioindicators for ozone pollution (significant negative correlations between total proanthocyanidins and the concentrations of ozone and significant positive correlations between total flavonols and the ozone pollution). Sulfur dioxide pollution is distinguished by low concentrations in quercetin, isorhamnetin, and kaempferol (significant negative correlations between these simple flavonols and the concentrations of SO2). This work confirms the strong interest of using the phenolic compounds of Pinus halepensis as biological indicators of air quality.     

The cost of crop damage caused by ozone air pollution from motor vehicles

The effects of ozone air pollution on the agricultural sector are an important environmental challenge facing policy makers. Most studies of the economic impact of air pollution on agriculture have found that a 25% reduction in ambient ozone would provide benefits of at least $1–2 billion annually in the United States. This paper extends existing research by estimating the benefits of a reduction in emissions from a major source of ozone formation: motor-vehicle emissions. An agricultural production model is combined with an analysis of motor-vehicle emissions and air quality to estimate the impacts of emissions from six different motor-vehicle classes, at both the regional and national level. The benefits to the agricultural sector from completely eliminating ozone precursor emissions from motor vehicles ranges between $3·5 and $6·1 billion annually.     

Environmental Management of Sulfur Trioxide Emission: Impact of SO3 on Human Health

The major contributors to global acidification are sulfur oxides and nitrogen oxides emitted mostly by the burning of fossil fuels. From the scientific point of view, it is necessary to make a clear distinction between sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide when referring to sulfur oxides. These two air pollutants have different properties. This paper reports the following aspects: the strong effect of sulfur trioxide on local human health (a case study of asthma in Yokkaichi), the problem of corrosion caused by sulfur trioxide, the difference in analytical methods for determining sulfur dioxide concentrations and sulfur trioxide concentrations, and the difference in removal methods for sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide. An important initiative at the third European conference of environment ministers was that the issue of human health related to local air pollution should be given priority over that of global pollution. The declines in the emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides have mainly been effective in reducing acidification due to long-range transport. The reduction in sulfur trioxide may be more effective in improving local human health mentioned in the initiative.     

Comparative analysis of air pollution emissions by electric utilities: Public policy implications

One of the objectives of US environmental regulations was to reduce industrial air pollution emissions, especially from the electric utility industry, the major industrial air polluter. In this study, a comparative analysis of air pollution emissions from fossil-fuel-burning electric utility plants is conducted. The analysis focuses on a 12-yr period from 1975 to 1987 for three air pollutants: particulates, surfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The results indicate that particulate emissions have been significantly reduced but that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are still major problems for a number of plants. Furthermore, the disparity in the performance by plants indicates that by using current technology, the industry as a whole could greatly reduce these emissions. These results have policy implication for future environmental legislation.     

Environmental and economic analysis of switchgrass production for water quality improvement in northeast Kansas

The primary objectives of this research were to determine SWAT model predicted reductions in four water quality indicators (sediment yield, surface runoff, nitrate nitrogen (NO(3)-N) in surface runoff, and edge-of-field erosion) associated with producing switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) on cropland in the Delaware basin in northeast Kansas, and evaluate switchgrass break-even prices. The magnitude of potential switchgrass water quality payments based on using switchgrass as an alternative energy source was also estimated. SWAT model simulations showed that between 527,000 and 1.27 million metric tons (Mg) of switchgrass could be produced annually across the basin depending upon nitrogen (N) fertilizer application levels (0-224 kg N ha(-1)). The predicted reductions in sediment yield, surface runoff, NO(3)-N in surface runoff, and edge-of-field erosion as a result of switchgrass plantings were 99, 55, 34, and 98%, respectively. The average annual cost per hectare for switchgrass ranged from about 190 US dollars with no N applied to around 345 US dollars at 224 kg N ha(-1) applied. Edge-of-field break-even price per Mg ranged from around 41 US dollars with no N applied to slightly less than 25 US dollars at 224 kg N ha(-1) applied. A majority of the switchgrass produced had an edge-of-field break-even price of 30 Mg(-1) US dollars or less. Savings of at least 50% in each of the four water quality indicators could be attained for an edge-of-field break-even price of 22-27.49 US dollars Mg(-1).     

Urban air pollution from the open burning of municipal solid waste

This study estimates the contribution from the open burning of municipal wastes in some of Nigeria's major cities to atmospheric levels of air pollutants. Information obtained on open burning emission factors and municipal solid waste (MSW) generation estimates was combined to estimate annual levels of the pollutants from the open burning of MSW. Per capita distributions of pollutants were calculated on the basis of cities’ populations. The estimates of inorganic emissions across the cities studied were from 913.73 to 81,600 tons per year (TPY) of particulate matter; 4,797 to 428,400 TPY of oxides of nitrogen; 342.65 to 30,600; and 57 to 5,100 TPY of sulfur dioxide, while the estimates for methane ranged from 742 to 66,300 TPY and for other nonmethane organic compounds ranged from 1,713 to 153,000 TPY. Given the composition of MSW in these cities, the nonmethane organic compounds are likely to be composed of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds. Given the wide varieties of both inorganic and organic air pollutants released during the open burning of MSW and the associated human health and environmental impacts, it is high time that stakeholders at all levels of government came up with policies and regulatory measures for the management of MSW in the country.     

伊宁市二氧化硫行业、区域分担率分析及对策探讨

总量控制是国家节能减排的主要手段,二氧化硫排放量控制是大气污染物削减的主要控制指标。在污染源普查数据统计分析的基础上,对伊宁市废气中二氧化硫排放按污染源和区域进行分担率研究,掌握并了解产生排放二氧化硫按污染源、区域、行业分布情况,确定伊宁市二氧化硫减排的重点行业和区域,为政府调整产业结构及企业合理布局提供决策依据。     

“排污权”和“碳排放权”交易的减污降碳协同效应研究——基于污染治理和政策管理的双重视角

全面系统地评估排污权交易和碳排放权交易的减污降碳协同效应,对于进一步发挥应对气候变化和大气污染治理的协同效应、推进全国统一生态环境市场建设具有重要意义。本文基于污染治理和政策管理的双重视角,采用多时点双重差分和倾向得分匹配,分别检验排污权交易和碳排放权交易的减污和降碳效应;并在此基础上,研究三种政策情景下（排污权交易、碳排放权交易以及组合政策）的协同减排效应差异。研究表明,从污染治理视角,排污权交易和碳排放权交易均显著降低了二氧化硫和二氧化碳排放量,实现了减污降碳的协同效应;从政策协同管理视角,在减少二氧化硫污染方面,组合政策比各类政策的单独实施更为有效;在降低二氧化碳排放方面,碳排放权交易比排污权交易和组合政策更为有效。因此,在推进气候变化应对和大气污染治理机制融合的进程中,应有所侧重地推进碳排放权交易和排污权交易组合使用。     

徐州市近年来大气硫酸盐化速率的时空变化研究

硫酸盐化速率反映大气中二氧化硫及硫的化合物的污染状况，文章以徐州市区11年大气中硫酸盐化速率监测数据为依据，分析研究了煤烟型城市环境空气中硫酸盐化速率的变化规律及污染状况。结果表明：徐州市硫酸盐化速率变化有明显的时空特征，与环境空气质量也密切相关。提出削减污染源，加快清洁能源推广步伐，完善城市规划，进行产业结构调整是解决徐州市大气污染的有效途径。     

Assessing Health Benefits of Controlling Air Pollution from Power Generation: The Case of a Lignite-Fired Power Plant in Thailand

The impact pathway approach (IPA) is used to estimate quantitatively the level of health effects caused by particulate matter (PM₁₀) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) emission from a lignite-fired power plant located in the Mae Moh area in northern region of Thailand. Health benefits are then assessed by comparing the levels of estimated health impacts without and with the installation of the flue gas desulfurization (FGD) equipment. The US EPA industrial source complex model is used to model air pollution dispersion at the local scale, and the sector average limited mixing meso-scale model is used to model air pollution transport at the regional scale. The quantification of the health end points in physical terms is carried out using the dose–response functions established recently for the population in Bangkok, Thailand. Monetarization of these effects is based on the benefit transfer method with appropriate adjustment. Finally, it has been found that the installation of the FGD to control SO₂ emission at Mae Moh significantly reduces adverse health effects not only on the population living near the power plant but also all over the country. A FGD unit installed at the 300-MW power unit can result, on average, in 16 fewer cases of acute mortality, 12 fewer cases of respiratory and cardiac hospital admissions, and almost 354,000 fewer days with acute respiratory symptoms annually. In monetary terms this benefit is equivalent to US $18.2 million (1995 prices) per annum. This benefit is much higher than the annualized investment and operation costs of FGD (US $7.4 million/yr).     

Health benefits valuation of regulatory intervention for air pollution control in thermal power plants in Delhi,India

This study estimates minimum marginal health benefits (morbidity reduction only) of air pollution control and total health benefits arising from regulatory intervention regarding the adoption of the World Bank emission guidelines (WBEG) for thermal power plants (TPPs) in Delhi. The Industrial Source Complex-Short-Term Version–3 (ISCST3) model has been used to estimate the contribution to air pollution from TPPs. The household health production function (avertive behaviour) has been used to value health benefits of air pollution control. The study revealed that the ambient air pollution due to TPPs is reduced by between 62.17% to 83.45% by adopting the WBEG. Annual marginal benefit due to reduction in exposure to air pollution by 1 μg m^?3 is estimated to be US$0.353 per person. Total annual health benefits for adopting the WBEG for TPPs are estimated at US$235.19 million. This study provides a novel methodology to evaluate health benefits of regulatory intervention.     

The health and visibility cost of air pollution: a comparison of estimation methods

Air pollution from motor vehicles, electricity-generating plants, industry, and other sources can harm human health, injure crops and forests, damage building materials, and impair visibility. Economists sometimes analyze the social cost of these impacts, in order to illuminate tradeoffs, compare alternatives, and promote efficient use of scarce resource. In this paper, we compare estimates of the health and visibility costs of air pollution derived from a meta-hedonic price analysis, with an estimate of health costs derived from a damage-function analysis and an estimate of the visibility cost derived from contingent valuation. We find that the meta-hedonic price analysis produces an estimate of the health cost that lies at the low end of the range of damage-function estimates. This is consistent with hypotheses that on the one hand, hedonic price analysis does not capture all of the health costs of air pollution (because individuals may not be fully informed about all of the health effects), and that on the other hand, the value of mortality used in the high-end damage function estimates is too high. The analysis of the visibility cost of air pollution derived from a meta-hedonic price analysis produces an estimate that is essentially identical to an independent estimate based on contingent valuation. This close agreement lends some credence to the estimates. We then apply the meta hedonic-price model to estimate the visibility cost per kilogram of motor vehicle emissions.     

A fresh look at the benefits and costs of the US acid rain program

The US Acid Rain Program (Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act Amendments) has achieved substantial reductions in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) from power plants in the United States. We compare new estimates of the benefits and costs of Title IV to those made in 1990. Important changes in our understanding of and ability to quantify the benefits of Title IV have occurred. Benefits to human health now take a much higher profile because the contribution of SO2 and NOx emissions to the formation of fine particulate (PM2.5) is substantial, and evidence of the harmful human health effects of PM2.5 has emerged in the last 15 years. New estimates of the health benefits of PM2.5 reductions are the largest category of quantified health and environmental benefits and total over 100 billion US dollars annually for 2010 when the program is expected to be fully implemented. Although important uncertainties exist in any specific estimate of the benefits, even if the estimates were calculated using more limiting assumptions and interpretations of the literature they would still substantially exceed the costs. Estimates of annualized costs for 2010 are about 3 billion US dollars, which is less than half of what was estimated in 1990. Research since 1990 also suggests that environmental problems associated with acid deposition and nitrogen deposition are more challenging to resolve than originally thought and will require larger reductions in emissions to reverse. The greater than expected benefits to human health, the greater vulnerability of natural resources and ecosystems, and the lower than expected costs all point to the conclusion that further reductions in SO2 and NOx emissions from power plants beyond those currently required by Title IV are warranted.     

攀枝花市区及盐边县城区城市臭氧污染状况研究

攀枝花市区臭氧污染负荷逐年上升,盐边县城区近年来臭氧污染负荷均高于20%,臭氧污染已成为影响城市空气质量的重要因素。对2017年1月~2020年2月攀枝花市区和盐边县城区臭氧污染物浓度时空变化规律和相关性进行了研究,并结合攀枝花各地太阳能和天气网记录的气象数据,统计了太阳辐射强度、紫外线辐射强度、日最高气温、日平均风向、季节气候等气象要素与出现臭氧污染的概率。研究表明,攀枝花市区和盐边县城区两地春、夏季较易出现臭氧污染,春季臭氧浓度持续高值时数最多,夏季臭氧浓度持续高值影响时数次之,两地臭氧污染物浓度变化有极强相关性。此外,臭氧浓度与气象条件密切关系,当紫外辐射强度大于30W/m²时,臭氧污染的几率为5%~8%,最高日气温值29℃~36℃之间时易出现臭氧污染,攀枝花市区臭氧污染受西向气流影响最重,盐边县城区臭氧污染受南向气流影响最重,盐边城区臭氧污染主要受攀枝花市区影响。根据臭氧污染物浓度时空变化规律和气象条件,开展区域臭氧前体物排放调控,将有效改善地区环境空气质量。     

Coefficients of pollution: Interindustry linkage and pollution in Belgium

The paper briefly develops an approach toward using pollution coefficients from one country as an expedience for applying an environmental economic analysis to a separate, but similar country for which hard data may not be available.The Coefficients are defined based upon information available from the Netherlands and the United States in combination with input-output data available for Belgium. A combination of the various data results in a crude estimate of the direct and indirect pollution generation per unit activity in different sectors on a country-wide basis.