Comparative analysis of air pollution emissions by electric utilities: Public policy implications

One of the objectives of US environmental regulations was to reduce industrial air pollution emissions, especially from the electric utility industry, the major industrial air polluter. In this study, a comparative analysis of air pollution emissions from fossil-fuel-burning electric utility plants is conducted. The analysis focuses on a 12-yr period from 1975 to 1987 for three air pollutants: particulates, surfur dioxide, and nitrogen oxides. The results indicate that particulate emissions have been significantly reduced but that sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are still major problems for a number of plants. Furthermore, the disparity in the performance by plants indicates that by using current technology, the industry as a whole could greatly reduce these emissions. These results have policy implication for future environmental legislation.     

The benefits and costs of reducing emissions from the electricity sector

Recent federal policy proposals to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO(2)), nitrogen oxides (NO(x)), and mercury from the US electricity sector promise important improvements in air quality and reductions in acid deposition. The cost of achieving these reductions depends on the form and stringency of the regulation. In this research, we analyze the economic benefits and costs of the US Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) as characterized in the supplemental rule proposed in June 2004, and the Clean Air Mercury Rule (CAMR) as proposed in February 2004. The assessment integrates a model of the electricity sector, two models of atmospheric transport of air pollutants, and a model of environmental and public health endpoints affected by pollution. We model explicitly the emissions of SO(2), NO(x), mercury and carbon dioxide (CO(2)) and the effects of changes in emissions of SO(2) and NO(x) on environmental and public health. The manner in which mercury emissions are regulated will have important implications not only for the cost of the regulation, but also for emission levels for SO(2) and NO(x) and where those emissions are located. We find the economic benefits of CAIR and CAMR are far greater than the costs. Recent estimates of benefits of reductions in mercury and acidification indicate that our model captures the lion's share of quantifiable benefits. We also find that the EPA would have been justified on economic grounds in pursuing additional SO(2) emissions reductions beyond the requirements of CAIR.     

论长江经济带大气污染防治的若干问题与防治对策

长江经济带是世界上最大的内河产业带和制造业基地,建设长江经济带是新时期中国三大国家发展战略之一,积极、有效地保护长江经济带生态环境具有非常重要的战略意义。本研究从识别突出的大气污染防治问题入手,深入分析大气污染的主要驱动力产业与能源结构,以问题为靶向,提出长江经济带的大气污染防治策略。研究结果发现,占国土面积21%的长江经济带排放了全国34%的二氧化硫、32%的氮氧化物、28%的烟粉尘、44%的挥发性有机物、43%的氨,单位面积污染物排放强度是全国平均水平的1.3~2.1倍,污染物排放远超环境容量。长江经济带126个城市中,6项主要大气污染物年平均浓度全部达标的城市比例不到1/3。颗粒物是影响城市达标的主要污染物。长江经济带产业结构偏重和能源消费以煤为主,是造成大气污染排放量的主要源头,是大气污染的主要驱动力。以解决突出的大气环境问题为核心,将环境质量作为大气污染防治的底线,持续推进空气质量改善,重点措施上,从大气污染驱动力着手,提出优化产业与能源结构、深化多污染物协同控制、推进区域联防联控等大气污染防治对策建议。     

Impacts on air pollution in urban areas

Environmental management involves controlling various forms of pollution to levels that do not pose a threat to the health of the people and the environment in general. This paper presents a framework to analyze sources of local air pollution in cities. Using an OLS model, an investigation is performed of the relationship among the concentrations of air pollutants [more precisely, concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), dust, nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon oxide (CO) and ozone (O₃)], economic activities, and meteorology. Time series analysis leads to a model, that explains a high degree of the variance in the air pollution data. The model is applied to daily time series from three measurement stations in innsbruck, Austria. Estimation results of the model generally fit with the expected relations. Space heating influences SO₂, dust, and NO, while NO₂ levels are primarily affected by traffic. These results also indicate interdependent relations among the pollutants NO, NO₂, O₃, and CO; O₃ levels depend on temperature and sunshine.     

Evaluation of the First Phase of Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides Provisions of the 1990 Clean Air Act: A Plant-Based Approach

Electric power generating plants that use coal were among the key targets of Title IV of the 1990 Clean Air Act. Under the first phase of the act, 110 coal-fired electric power plants were required to reduce their sulfur dioxide emissions by 1995 and nitrogen oxide emissions by 1996. Phase 2 of the act requires even greater reduction of sulfur dioxide emissions by 2000 and nitrogen oxide emissions by 2008. This study examines whether the 107 targeted plants (three plants went off-line) have achieved the desired sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emission levels. The analysis of sulfur dioxide is based on data from 1990, 1995, and 1999. The findings show that although sulfur oxide increased by 3% from 1995 to 1999, it decreased by 45% over the 1990–1999 period at the firm level for the targeted firms. The findings also indicate that the overall reduction in sulfur dioxide was achieved by utilizing low sulfur coal and by purchasing emission allowances. So far as nitrogen oxides are concerned, there has been a reduction of 14% over the 1990–1999 period, of which 7% was achieved during the 1995–1999 period. An evaluation of emissions at the plant level indicates that several plants do not meet the emissions level for sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxides. These results provide a mixed scorecard for reduction in emissions both for sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Even though there is reduction in the emissions on an overall basis at the firm level, several plants that have not been able to reduce emissions deserve special attention to meet the goals of the act in reducing emissions.     

我国大气细颗粒物污染防治目标和控制措施研究

我国面临着严重的细颗粒物(PM2.5)污染问题,PM2.5对人体健康、能见度、气候变化、生态系统等均产生了不良影响。本文旨在提出我国PM2.5污染防治目标和控制措施,为从根本上改善空气质量提供科学依据。首先,本文提出了2020年和2030年我国PM2.5污染防治目标。其次,采用能源和污染排放技术模型,分情景预测了我国未来一次大气污染物排放量的变化趋势。基于情景预测结果和此前研究建立的一次污染物排放与PM2.5浓度间的非线性关系,确定了2020年—2030年与PM2.5浓度改善相适应的全国和重点区域大气污染物减排目标。最后,利用能源和污染排放技术模型,提出了实现大气污染物减排的技术措施和对策建议。研究表明,2030年全国二氧化硫、氮氧化物、一次PM2.5和挥发性有机物的排放量应分别比2012年至少削减51%、64%、53%和36%,氨排放量也要略有下降。对于污染严重的重点区域,必须采取更严格的控制力度。要实现上述减排,应加快能源结构调整,推进煤炭清洁高效集中可持续利用,建立"车-油-路"一体的移动源控制体系,并强化多源多污染物的末端控制。     

“排污权”和“碳排放权”交易的减污降碳协同效应研究——基于污染治理和政策管理的双重视角

全面系统地评估排污权交易和碳排放权交易的减污降碳协同效应,对于进一步发挥应对气候变化和大气污染治理的协同效应、推进全国统一生态环境市场建设具有重要意义。本文基于污染治理和政策管理的双重视角,采用多时点双重差分和倾向得分匹配,分别检验排污权交易和碳排放权交易的减污和降碳效应;并在此基础上,研究三种政策情景下（排污权交易、碳排放权交易以及组合政策）的协同减排效应差异。研究表明,从污染治理视角,排污权交易和碳排放权交易均显著降低了二氧化硫和二氧化碳排放量,实现了减污降碳的协同效应;从政策协同管理视角,在减少二氧化硫污染方面,组合政策比各类政策的单独实施更为有效;在降低二氧化碳排放方面,碳排放权交易比排污权交易和组合政策更为有效。因此,在推进气候变化应对和大气污染治理机制融合的进程中,应有所侧重地推进碳排放权交易和排污权交易组合使用。     

SO2 Dispersion and Monthly Evaluation of the Industrial Source Complex Short-Term (ISCST32) Model at Mina Al-Fahal Refinery,Sultanate of Oman

Modeling of air pollutant dispersion has been undertaken for emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO₂) at the Mina Al-Fahal refinery in the Sultanate of Oman. The study was conducted during the period of November 1999 to October 2000. The Industrial Source Complex Short-Term (ISCST32) air pollution model was adopted to predict the ground level concentration of SO₂ in and around the refinery. The modeling results were validated against measured data during the study period. The comparison, based on the monthly average measurements, showed that the model underestimates the observed SO₂ concentrations. However, the predicted ground level concentrations of SO₂ during the months of September, October, November, and June were in better agreement with the observations. The predicted SO₂ values are presented in the form of concentration contours to determine the spatial distribution of SO₂ and to assess the impact on air quality over the survey area. Predicted SO₂ concentrations were found lower than the World Health Organisation (WHO) guideline value of 365 μg/m³, with the maximum ground level concentrations being found to occur relatively close to the sources of emission. Moreover, concentration contour patterns for the modeled area vary with changes in meteorological conditions. On the basis of this study, the refinery is not likely to cause any significant deterioration in air quality, and predicted concentrations of SO₂ are well below those likely to influence health.     

张掖市城区采暖期环境空气中污染物分布特征分析

以张掖市甘州区城区采暖期2008—2012年5年环境空气质量数据为主,对采暖期污染物变化状况及污染物分布情况进行分析。张掖市冬季采暖主要以燃煤为主,能源结构不合理、锅炉污染严重、工业企业结构不合理以及交通污染等原因,使得冬季采暖期间张掖市甘州区城区环境空气中主要污染物为二氧化硫、可吸入颗粒物、二氧化氮,采暖期间污染物浓度随时问呈正态分布特征。结合污染特点,提出调整能源结构、利用清洁能源、加大监管力度等建议,以期改善张掖市采暖期的环境空气质量。     

Estimation of gaseous criteria air pollutants from road transport system in Lagos metropolis of Nigeria

Ambient air pollution by vehicular emissions is underestimated, especially in the major cities of Nigeria. The buildup of the emissions in the atmosphere is a major health concern. This study estimated the emissions of gaseous criteria air pollutants (CAPs) from the road transport system in the Lagos metropolis from the year 2004 to 2007. The study also determined the ground‐level concentrations of these pollutants for the years under review. Estimation of the emission rates of all types of vehicles was performed using an emission factor approach, while the ground‐level concentrations of the CAPs were determined using the Industrial Source Complex Short Term 3 view model. The results showed that the mean concentrations of carbon monoxide in the ambient air were 26,741.12, 31,675.95, 54,515.48, and 72,388.09 micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m³) for years 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007, respectively, while the estimated concentrations for oxides of nitrogen were 1,377.91 μg/m³ for year 2004, and 1,620.76, 2,897.33, and 3,839.68 μg/m³, respectively, for the years 2005, 2006, and 2007. The estimated concentrations of sulfur dioxide during the study period were 51,354.16, 57,244.76, 113,083.26, and 136,332.01 μg/m³ for 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007, respectively. For volatile organic compounds, the estimated concentrations were 3,839.68, 6,839.65, 7,067.62, and 8,431.35 μg/m³ for years 2004, 2005, 2006, and 2007, respectively. The results also show that the maximum ground‐level concentrations were highest along the roadside, and the average CAPs concentrations and cumulative exposure concentrations that were estimated throughout the study period are a major health concern, as these concentrations are several times higher than international limits.     

Passive monitoring of nitrogen dioxide in urban air: a case study of Durban metropolis, South Africa

To devise and implement strategies to manage the quality of urban air, a metropolis needs air pollution data on which an air quality management plan can be formulated. Although air pollutants can come from several sources, many reports suggest that nitrogen dioxide from motor vehicle emissions is the major contributor to air pollution in cities. Since vehicles stop or move slowly through traffic intersections, concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) are expected to be relatively high at these sites. Inexpensive Ogawa passive samplers were placed at selected traffic intersections in the Durban Metropolis to trap the NO(2) which was then analysed by a sensitive laboratory-based method. The data obtained by this method was compared with data from sophisticated system comprising an active sampler cum on-line chemiluminescence detector. The sampling was done over a twelve month period to cover all seasons. Statistical analysis of the data showed that there was no significant difference between the means for the two methods. This study has established that an Ogawa passive sampler may be used as an economical and reliable collector for NO(2) in ambient air under varying climatic conditions. Further, the analysis method using a UV-Visible spectrophotometer was sensitive enough to detect NO(2) at the 10-20 ppb level. The cost of the method should be well within the budgets of most municipalities and it would motivate them to develop policies to alleviate traffic congestion.     

Estimating the benefits of pollution reduction on agricultural yields: Taiwan's air pollution emission fees program

Taiwan's implementation of the 1997 Air Pollution Emissions Fees Program will conceivably lead to long-term reductions in pollution emissions. The purpose of this paper is to estimate the benefits to Taiwan from the expected reduction in crop losses as a direct result of such a decrease in air pollution. We employ a demand-supply framework for rice production to estimate the change in social welfare resulting from changes in the concentration of certain pollutants in the atmosphere. Our empirical results show that, in the year 1997, social welfare increments resulting from the decline in sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere ranged between US dollars 946200 and US dollars 2435800. Meanwhile, during the same period, the increase in social welfare due to the decline in the ozone concentration in the atmosphere ranged between US dollars 838100 and US dollars 1927000. The average benefit from the reduction in both sulfur dioxide and ozone concentrations is calculated to be between US dollars 2.67 and US dollars 6.86 per acre (for sulfur dioxide), and from US dollars 2.36 to US dollars 5.43 per acre (for ozone).     

伊宁市二氧化硫行业、区域分担率分析及对策探讨

总量控制是国家节能减排的主要手段,二氧化硫排放量控制是大气污染物削减的主要控制指标。在污染源普查数据统计分析的基础上,对伊宁市废气中二氧化硫排放按污染源和区域进行分担率研究,掌握并了解产生排放二氧化硫按污染源、区域、行业分布情况,确定伊宁市二氧化硫减排的重点行业和区域,为政府调整产业结构及企业合理布局提供决策依据。     

徐州市近年来大气硫酸盐化速率的时空变化研究

硫酸盐化速率反映大气中二氧化硫及硫的化合物的污染状况，文章以徐州市区11年大气中硫酸盐化速率监测数据为依据，分析研究了煤烟型城市环境空气中硫酸盐化速率的变化规律及污染状况。结果表明：徐州市硫酸盐化速率变化有明显的时空特征，与环境空气质量也密切相关。提出削减污染源，加快清洁能源推广步伐，完善城市规划，进行产业结构调整是解决徐州市大气污染的有效途径。     

A Review on the Present Scenario of Air Quality Associated with Indian Mining Operations

Compositional changes to air quality from coal mining are not only the most visible impact from these activities on the environment, they can also immediately affect the health of mine professionals and adjoining populations. The presence of gases and suspended solids emitted by mining activities affects the human respiratory system and decreases production in mines. This article summarizes a case study of several Northern Coalfields Limited (NCL) coal mines with an emphasis on particulate matter (PM) to report the status of air quality connected to coal production and overburden removal. The concentrations of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), and suspended particulate matter (SPM) reported in the literature are also summarized in table form to allow comparisons to the permissible standards set by the Indian Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and other standards used around the world. An up‐to‐date status of air quality at coal mines is compared for mines located in different parts of India. Subsequently, all coal mines were divided into different classes in regard to the severity of their emissions. These classes are, in increasing order of severity, green, yellow, red, and black. SPM measurements were tabulated in regard to concentration and composition. Our article concludes with the recommendation that an environmental impact assessment (EIA) to be conducted to better characterize changes in the environment from mining emissions to develop integrated mitigation measures and to identify additional parameters to define air quality at mines.     

Acid Deposition and Integrated Zoning Control in China

China's rapidly growing economy is coupled with the consumption of large amounts of coal. An energy mix dominated by coal and inefficient energy utilization processes have led to increasingly serious problems of acid rain and sulfur dioxide pollution. Moreover, trends in the emissions of acidifying air pollutants lead to predictions of a very serious acid deposition problem in the future. In the absence of mitigating actions, these trends foretell a future of increasingly detrimental impacts to ecosystems in China and, potentially, to ecosystems in neighboring countries. China has implemented a two control zone (TCZ) policy, resulting in the establishment of acid rain and sulfur dioxide control zones, in an attempt to implement a cost-effective approach to mitigating acid deposition problems. While some short-term successes have resulted from management actions associated with the TCZ policy, it is clear additional measures and new policy directions are needed to reverse worsening acid deposition problems in the long term. To this end the following recommendations are presented: adjusting the primary energy mix, placing a greater emphasis on abating the effects of acid deposition, concentrating pollution control on large point sources, implementing an emission permit system for coal-fired power plants, utilizing an integrated approach in designing and evaluating control measures, and developing a greater research capacity. Research strategies must be developed that will lead to: (1) an improved scientific understanding of the sources of acidifying pollutants, their associated migration patterns, and their impacts; and (2) an identification of cost-effective mitigating strategies for the entire country.     

Urban air pollution from the open burning of municipal solid waste

This study estimates the contribution from the open burning of municipal wastes in some of Nigeria's major cities to atmospheric levels of air pollutants. Information obtained on open burning emission factors and municipal solid waste (MSW) generation estimates was combined to estimate annual levels of the pollutants from the open burning of MSW. Per capita distributions of pollutants were calculated on the basis of cities’ populations. The estimates of inorganic emissions across the cities studied were from 913.73 to 81,600 tons per year (TPY) of particulate matter; 4,797 to 428,400 TPY of oxides of nitrogen; 342.65 to 30,600; and 57 to 5,100 TPY of sulfur dioxide, while the estimates for methane ranged from 742 to 66,300 TPY and for other nonmethane organic compounds ranged from 1,713 to 153,000 TPY. Given the composition of MSW in these cities, the nonmethane organic compounds are likely to be composed of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and volatile organic compounds. Given the wide varieties of both inorganic and organic air pollutants released during the open burning of MSW and the associated human health and environmental impacts, it is high time that stakeholders at all levels of government came up with policies and regulatory measures for the management of MSW in the country.     

Design of fuzzy synthetic evaluation model for air quality assessment

Little attention was paid to growing air quality concerns until about a decade earlier in India. Indian Government started continuous monitoring of the urban air quality in Taj corridor area to protect the heritage monuments like Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, the bird sanctuary at Bharatpur National Park and also the human health associated with air pollution. The aim of this study was to address air quality assessment using fuzzy synthetic evaluation model. The model was designed for four air pollutants (sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, suspended particulate matters and respirable suspended particulate matter). In the present paper, an approach is demonstrated for the determination of fuzzy air quality index by aggregating the four pollutants. The model also considers the weights of individual pollutants during aggregation. The weights of individual pollutants were determined using analytical hierarchical process. The model was applied for air quality assessment in four monitoring stations situated in Taj Trapezium Zone.     

Quantifying the human health benefits of curbing air pollution in Shanghai

Urban development in the mega-cities of Asia has caused detrimental effects on the human health of its inhabitants through air pollution. However, averting these health damages by investing in clean energy and industrial technologies and measures can be expensive. Many cities do not have the capital to make such investments or may prefer to invest that capital elsewhere. In this article, we examine the city of Shanghai, China, and perform an illustrative cost/benefit analysis of air pollution control. Between 1995 and 2020 we expect that Shanghai will continue to grow rapidly. Increased demands for energy will cause increased use of fossil fuels and increased emissions of air pollutants. In this work, we examine emissions of particles smaller than 10 microm in diameter (PM10), which have been associated with inhalation health effects. We hypothesize the establishment of a new technology strategy for coal-fired power generation after 2010 and a new industrial coal-use policy. The health benefits of pollution reduction are compared with the investment costs for the new strategies. The study shows that the benefit-to-cost ratio is in the range of 1-5 for the power-sector initiative and 2-15 for the industrial-sector initiative. Thus, there appear to be considerable net benefits for these strategies, which could be very large depending on the valuation of health effects in China today and in the future. This study therefore provides economic grounds for supporting investments in air pollution control in developing cities like Shanghai.