MINERALS OBJECTIVES, POLICIES AND STRATEGIES IN BOTSWANA — ANALYSIS AND LESSONS

This article examines the present status of the minerals industry in Botswana and the effectiveness of that country's policies on minerals development and the achievement of national development goals. Botswana's mineral production increased (in constant 1979 dollars) from less than $1 million per year in the late 1960s to $300 million in 1979 and is expected to more than double by the mid-1980s. The author analyses the country's regime of mineral rights, the role of the private sector, negotiation of mining agreements and the implementation of national mineral exploration strategies. Cet article étudie l'état actuel de l'industrie minière au Botswana et l'efficacité de la politique suivie par ce pays dans la mise en valeur des ressources minérales. La production minière du Botswana est passée de moins de 1 million de dollars des E.U. par an au début des années 60 à environ 300 millions de dollars en 1979 (en dollars constants de 1979). L'auteur analyse la réglementation minière du pays, le rôle du secteur privé, la négociation des contrats de production et la législation concernant les droits d'exploration. L'auteur étudie ensuite ces résultats dans le contexte du développement national considéré dans son ensemble. Este artículo examina el estado actual de la indústria minera en Botswana y la efectividad de las políticas de desarrollo minero del país. La producción minera de Botswana aumentó (en dólares constantes de 1970) de menos de un millón de dólares por año al comienzo de la década del sesenta a 300 millones de dólares en 1979. El autor analiza el régimen del derecho sobre minerales del país, el rol del sector privado, la negociación de los contratos de producción y la organización de los derechos de exploración. El autor luego examina estos resultados dentro del contexto del desarrollo nacional.     

Assessment of Cobalt-Rich Manganese Crusts in the Hawaiian, Johnston and Palmyra Islands' Exclusive Economic Zones

Cobalt-rich manganese crusts occurring within the 200 mile Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs) of Pacific island nations may be of long-term strategic importance to the major industrialized nations and represent an important long-term development option for Pacific island nations.
A resource assessment methodology is described and used to estimate the resource potential of cobalt, copper, nickel and manganese within the EEZs of the Hawaiian Archipelago, Johnston and Palmyra Islands. Results of this study indicate a resource of roughly 10 million tons of cobalt, 6 million tons of nickel, 1 million tons of copper and 300 million tons of manganese within the study area.
Available data on manganese crusts and ocean bottom topography is inadequate for undertaking a full assessment of the resource potential of crusts within the EEZs of most Pacific island nations. Therefore it is recommended that to evaluate the potential of these nations a comprehensive research programme should be developed and implemented.     

Infectious Diseases and Extinction Risk in Wild Mammals

Abstract:  Parasite-driven declines in wildlife have become increasingly common and can pose significant risks to natural populations. We used the IUCN Red List of Threatened and Endangered Species and compiled data on hosts threatened by infectious disease and their parasites to better understand the role of infectious disease in contemporary host extinctions. The majority of mammal species considered threatened by parasites were either carnivores or artiodactyls, two clades that include the majority of domesticated animals. Parasites affecting host threat status were predominantly viruses and bacteria that infect a wide range of host species, including domesticated animals. Counter to our predictions, parasites transmitted by close contact were more likely to cause extinction risk than those transmitted by other routes. Mammal species threatened by parasites were not better studied for infectious diseases than other threatened mammals and did not have more parasites or differ in four key traits demonstrated to affect parasite species richness in other comparative studies. Our findings underscore the need for better information concerning the distribution and impacts of infectious diseases in populations of endangered mammals. In addition, our results suggest that evolutionary similarity to domesticated animals may be a key factor associated with parasite-mediated declines; thus, efforts to limit contact between domesticated hosts and wildlife could reduce extinction risk.     

Demonstration as a Means to Translate Conservation Science into Practice

Abstract:  To be relevant to societal interests and needs, conservation science must explicitly lend itself to solving real-world problems. Failure to evaluate under field conditions how a new technology or method performs or the cost of its implementation can prevent its acceptance by end users. Demonstration, defined here as the translation of scientific understanding into metrics of performance and cost of implementation under real-world conditions, is a logical step in the challenging progression from fundamental research to application. Demonstration reduces scientific uncertainty and validates the hypothesis that a management approach is both effective and financially sustainable. Much like adaptive management, demonstration enables researchers and resource managers to avoid trial-and-error approaches and instead conduct unbiased assessment of management interventions. The participation of end users and regulators in the development and execution of demonstration projects ensures that performance measures are credible and increases the probability that successful innovations will be adopted. Four actions might better connect science to the needs of resource managers via demonstration. First, we recommend that demonstration be conducted as a formal process that documents successes and failures. Second, demonstration should be budgeted as an integral component of government agencies' science programs and executed as a partnership between researchers and managers. Third, public and private funders should increase the opportunities and incentives for academics to engage in demonstration. Fourth, social influences on adoption of new technologies and methods should be further explored. When end users can evaluate explicitly whether a new approach is likely to achieve management objectives, save money, and reduce risk under uncertainty, the professional community successfully has bridged a chasm between research and application .     

Payments for Ecosystem Services as a Framework for Community-Based Conservation in Northern Tanzania

Abstract:  Payments for ecosystem services (PES) are an increasingly promoted approach to conservation. These approaches seek to develop financial mechanisms that create economic incentives for the maintenance of ecosystems and associated biodiversity by rewarding those who are responsible for provision of ecological services. There are, however, few cases in which such schemes have been used as a strategy for conserving wildlife in developing countries and very few operational examples of such schemes of any sort in sub-Saharan Africa. In savannah ecosystems, large mammal populations generally depend on seasonal use of extensive areas and are widely declining as a result of habitat loss, overexploitation, and policies that limit local benefits from wildlife. Community-based conservation strategies seek to create local incentives for conserving wildlife, but often have limited impact as a result of persistent institutional barriers that limit local rights and economic benefits. In northern Tanzania, a consortium of tourism operators is attempting to address these challenges through an agreement with a village that possesses part of a key wildlife dispersal area outside Tarangire National Park. The operators pay the community to enforce voluntary restrictions on agricultural cultivation and permanent settlement in a defined area of land. The initiative represents a potentially cost-effective framework for community-based conservation in an ecologically important area and is helping to reconcile historically conflicting local and national interests relative to land tenure, pastoralist livelihoods, and conservation. Wider adaptation of payments for ecosystem services approaches to settings where sustaining wildlife populations depends on local stewardship may help address current challenges facing conservation outside state-protected areas in savannah ecosystems in sub-Saharan Africa and other parts of the world.     

Grasslands, People, and Conservation: Over-the-Horizon Learning Exchanges between African and American Pastoralists

Abstract:  The world's grasslands and large migratory populations of wildlife have been disproportionately lost or disrupted by human activities, yet are poorly represented in protected areas. The major threats they face are land subdivision and the loss of large-scale dynamic processes such as wildlife migrations and fire. The large-scale dynamical processes and ubiquity of livestock economies and cultures across the grasslands calls for an integrated ecosystem approach to conservation to make up the shortfall in protected-area coverage. Ranchers and pastoralists will be more inclined to adopt an integrated landscape approach to conservation if they also see the threats to wildlife and grassland ecosystems as affecting their livelihoods and way of life. We arranged a series of learning exchanges between African and American pastoralists, ranchers, scientists, and conservationists aimed at building the collaboration and consensus needed to conserve grasslands at a landscape level. There was broad agreement on the threat of land fragmentation to livelihoods, wildlife, and grasslands. The exchanges also identified weaknesses in prevailing public, private, and community modes of ownership in halting fragmentation. New collaborative approaches were explored to attain the benefits of privatization while keeping the landscape open. The African–U.S. exchanges showed that learning exchanges can anticipate over-the-horizon problems and speed up the feedback loops that underlie adaptive management and build social and ecological resilience.     

Efficacy of Two Lion Conservation Programs in Maasailand,Kenya

Lion (Panthera leo) populations are in decline throughout most of Africa. The problem is particularly acute in southern Kenya, where Maasai pastoralists have been spearing and poisoning lions at a rate that will ensure near term local extinction. We investigated 2 approaches for improving local tolerance of lions: compensation payments for livestock lost to predators and Lion Guardians, which draws on local cultural values and knowledge to mitigate livestock‐carnivore conflict and monitor carnivores. To gauge the overall influence of conservation intervention, we combined both programs into a single conservation treatment variable. Using 8 years of lion killing data, we applied Manski's partial identification approach with bounded assumptions to investigate the effect of conservation treatment on lion killing in 4 contiguous areas. In 3 of the areas, conservation treatment was positively associated with a reduction in lion killing. We then applied a generalized linear model to assess the relative efficacy of the 2 interventions. The model estimated that compensation resulted in an 87–91% drop in the number of lions killed, whereas Lion Guardians (operating in combination with compensation and alone) resulted in a 99% drop in lion killing. Eficacia de Dos Programas de Conservación de Leones en Maasailand, Kenia     

The Ecological Future of the North American Bison: Conceiving Long-Term, Large-Scale Conservation of Wildlife

Abstract:  Many wide-ranging mammal species have experienced significant declines over the last 200 years; restoring these species will require long-term, large-scale recovery efforts. We highlight 5 attributes of a recent range-wide vision-setting exercise for ecological recovery of the North American bison ( Bison bison ) that are broadly applicable to other species and restoration targets. The result of the exercise, the "Vermejo Statement" on bison restoration, is explicitly (1) large scale, (2) long term, (3) inclusive, (4) fulfilling of different values, and (5) ambitious. It reads, in part, "Over the next century, the ecological recovery of the North American bison will occur when multiple large herds move freely across extensive landscapes within all major habitats of their historic range, interacting in ecologically significant ways with the fullest possible set of other native species, and inspiring, sustaining and connecting human cultures." We refined the vision into a scorecard that illustrates how individual bison herds can contribute to the vision. We also developed a set of maps and analyzed the current and potential future distributions of bison on the basis of expert assessment. Although more than 500,000 bison exist in North America today, we estimated they occupy <1% of their historical range and in no place express the full range of ecological and social values of previous times. By formulating an inclusive, affirmative, and specific vision through consultation with a wide range of stakeholders, we hope to provide a foundation for conservation of bison, and other wide-ranging species, over the next 100 years.     

Application of Resource Assessment Data to Policy Decisions in Developing Countries

Information about a nation's mineral resource potential is important in regional and national development planning. Unfortunately, it is usually not possible to determine the optimum levels of investment in mineral resource assessment activities in a developing country. In addition, there is a tendency for governments to initiate expensive resource assessment projects without an understanding of the types of decision that may be influenced by the assessment data. This paper examines ten major policy issues where decisions can be substantially influenced by resource assessment information. Governments can expect to increase their benefits from investment in resource assessment activities by linking resource assessments to specified policy decisions.     

Potential of Pacific Ocean Nodule, Crust, and Sulfide Mineral Deposits

This paper summarizes the main physical and economic features of manganese nodules, cobalt-rich manganese crusts and marine polymetallic sulfide deposits in the Pacific region. The most favourable areas for deposits of commerical interest are shown on a map of the Pacific. The gross metal sales values of hypothetical mines are compared to estimated size of world metal markets in the year 2000. It is suggested that a prudent policy for the major developed-country governments is to support research on those marine minerals that appear to have the potential to become a major source of minerals in the next century.