Limit of safety against flame transmission for sintered metal flame arrester elements in the case of flashback in fuel gas/oxygen mixtures

In autogenous welding, cutting and allied processes, so-called dry safety devices are used to protect the outlet terminals of gas distribution lines. To prevent flame transmission, these units are fitted with sintered metal flame arrester elements. At the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), extensive investigations have been carried out with an experimental flame arrester to determine the limits of safety against flame transmission for sintered metal flame arrester elements in the case of flashback in fuel gas/oxygen mixtures. On the basis of the results of these investigations, it is possible to estimate the pore sizes up to which a sintered metal element can prevent any flame transmission with a given fuel gas.     

Crimped metal ribbon flame arrestors for the protection of gas measurement systems

This paper summarises the results of extensive research to determine the limit of safety against flame transmission for flame arrestors of relatively small size fitted with arrestor elements made of crimped metal ribbon. Depending on the reactivity of the fuel gas/air mixture and the tube geometry the running up to detonation and hence the stressing of a flame arrestor by a detonation is possible in longer tubes with relatively small diameters. Only with reactive gas phases of explosion group I this stressing case for a flame arrestor can be excluded. With detonative gas phases the stressing of the flame arrestor decisively depends on the place of installation with respect to the point of transition from deflagration to detonation in the system considered. Five different stressing cases with a probably very different limiting pressure of safety against flame transmission must be distinguished. The results of the investigations will help to evaluate the results from testing of flame arrestors carried out according to the requirements in national and international standards or regulations.     

Determination of the performance limits of flame arresters at increased oxygen concentrations

This investigation shows how an increased oxygen concentration influences the performance limits of crimped ribbon deflagration flame arresters at elevated pressures. An evaluation of the maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) as reliable criterion for describing the performance limits under non-atmospheric conditions is given. Measurements of MESGs and flame arrester performance tests were performed. Various fuel/oxygen/air mixtures containing ethylene and propane were used as testing gases. Former studies on the pressure dependence and the influence of oxygen on the MESG were initially confirmed. Furthermore, performance tests using a commercial deflagration flame arrester revealed that such a flame arrester may prevent flame transmission also at non-atmospheric conditions within a limited range. For various oxygen concentrations the performance limits were reached at the same MESG. Hence, it can be assumed that a flame arrester possesses a device- and fuel-specific maximum experimental safe gap for a specific gas mixture in different concentrations and at different pressures. This performance-related maximum safe gap can be used as a parameter for estimating and describing the performance limits of a flame arrester. It offers an attempt to simplify the testing and qualification of deflagration flame arresters for non-atmospheric conditions.     

Experimental study on detonation flame penetrating through flame arrester

In-line detonation flame arresters are important safety apparatus to prevent group tank fires caused by the spreading of fire through vapor connection lines. In this study, a DN50 experimental apparatus aimed at the detonation flame penetration characteristics and failure mechanisms in a flame arrester was set up, and a series of experiments were carried out with 6.6% C2H4 and air mixture. Pressure, and velocity of flame penetrating through flame arrester housing and filters were analyzed. Experimental results showed that the attenuation of pressure and velocity was proportional to the thickness of the filters. Two failure modes of the fire-extinguishing process in the flame arrester were captured directly with a high-speed camera. In Mode I, the detonation flame could go straight through the flame arrester filters when the filters were too thin. In Mode II, when the filters were not sufficiently thick, the remained shock wave pressure of detonation flame was still several times of the initial pressure and could rise sharply at the downstream contraction section, resulting in that the flammable gas at the downstream transition section could be compressed and reignited even the flame had been extinguished by filters. These conclusions are helpful to reveal the nature of failure modes of fire-extinguishing process and design flame arresters with high fire-resisting performance by structure improved.     

Development of a mitigation system against hydrogen-air deflagrations in nuclear power plants

A novel mitigation system against hydrogen-air deflagrations in nuclear power plant buildings is proposed and developed through a series of field experiments using explosion vessels of different volume sizes. The mitigation system is installed on the outer surface of the vessels, and it comprises flame arrester and explosion air bag. The flame arrester is made by stacking 10–20 sheets of fine-mesh wire screens, and the air bag is connected for holding explosion gas. The successful mitigation mechanism is the sequence of pressure-rise reduction by the air bag expansion, flame quenching by the flame arrester, and the slow burning of the gas mixture sucked from the air bag back into the vessel due to the negative pressure caused by the rapid condensation of water vapor inside the vessel. Necessary conditions for the successful mitigation system are discussed, and the practical unit size of flame arrester sheet is recommended.     

多元可燃气体爆炸极限理论预测模型研究*

为准确掌握和预测多元可燃气体的爆炸极限,开展2种多元可燃气体爆炸极限的理论预测模型研究。第1种模型针对“多种可燃气体+多种惰性气体”在空气中或氧气中混合,基于求解可燃气体绝热火焰温度的总比热特性方法以及化学平衡反应中的贫燃料(富氧)反应,提出该多元可燃气体的爆炸下限预测模型;第2种模型针对“可燃气体+惰性气体+氧气”混合,基于热平衡方程及混合气体的各组分浓度、淬灭电势及燃烧潜热,提出该多元可燃气体的爆炸极限预测模型。结果表明:在预测多元可燃气体的爆炸极限时,第1种模型具有较广泛的应用性,且表现出较高的准确度;第2种模型具有使用简单的特点,且扩展了LCR（勒夏特列原理）的应用范围。     

The influence of inert gas on limiting experimental safe gap of fuel-air mixtures at various initial pressures

The Maximum Experimental Safe Gap (MESG) is an important criterion to assess the propagation of flames through small gaps. This safety-related parameter is used to classify the flammable gases and vapors in explosion groups, which are fundamental to constructional explosion protection. It is used both, for the safe design of flameproof encapsulated devices as well as for selecting flame arresters appropriate to the individual application. The MESG of a fuel is determined experimentally according to the standard ISO/IEC 80079-20-1:2017 at normal conditions (20 °C, 1.0 bar) with air as oxidizing gas. The aim of this work is to investigate the effect of inert gas addition on the MESG in order to assess the effectiveness of inertization in constructional explosion protection. The term limiting experimental safe gap (S_G) is used for the result of these measurements. The fuel-air mixtures (fuels: hydrogen, ethylene, propene, methane) used as representatives for the explosion groups in flame arrester testing were chosen and diluted with inert gas (nitrogen, carbon dioxide) before testing. The dependence of the limiting experimental safe gap on the total initial pressure, amount and nature of inert additive is discussed. The initial pressure was varied up to 2.0 bar to include increased pressure conditions used in flame arrester testing. Apart from the well-known reciprocal dependence on the initial pressure, the added inert gas results in an exponential increase of S_G. This effect depends on the inertizing potential of the gas and is therefore different with nitrogen and carbon dioxide. The ranking of the fuels is the same as with MESG. As a result, various mixtures of the same limiting experimental safe gap can now be chosen and tested with an individual flame arrester to prove the concept of a constant and device-related limiting safe gap. The work was funded by BG-RCI in Heidelberg (PTB grant number 37056).     

FA型高炉煤气管道火焰捕器研制

研制满足高炉煤气管道阻火的火焰捕器.内径88 mm、199 mm和305 mm组合爆炸管道模拟实验结果表明,FA型火焰捕器的阻火性能良好,满足高炉煤气管道阻火的技术要求,各项技术性能指标达到了设计要求.     

温拌阻燃沥青混合料阻燃效果评价

通过氧指数、质量损失率及路用性能试验,研究EC130温拌剂、FRMAX型阻燃剂对沥青混合料阻燃效果的影响。试验结果显示,相比普通沥青混合料,阻燃沥青混合料、温拌阻燃沥青混合料氧指数分别增加23.3%、25.6%,质量损失率减小28.0%、32.0%,残留动稳定度增加14.0%、16.1%,残留最大弯拉应变增加14.1%、17.1%,冻融劈裂强度比增加5.3%、9.0%。相比普通沥青路面,阻燃沥青路面、温拌阻燃沥青路面发生火灾时能够减少34.0%、41.1%的毒害气体生成,并减少路面修补所需的混合料质量。其次得出普通沥青路面、阻燃沥青路面及温拌阻燃沥青路面的质量损失率、残留动稳定度、残留最大弯拉应变、残留冻融劈裂强度比与燃烧时间的关系模型。结果表明:阻燃剂对沥青混合料的阻燃效果显著;温拌剂有助于阻燃剂更好地发挥阻燃作用,降低火灾对道路的破坏,降低隧道火灾发生时有害气体的生成,提升隧道安全性。     

Experimental investigation on flame and detonation quenching: applicability of static flame arresters

The present investigation was aimed at demonstrating the pertinent use of a flame/detonation arrester for the safety in the process industry. The experimental data provide information on the performance of a static flame arrester. The experiments were conducted in a 3-m long and 28-mm i.d. tube. The arrester, itself consists in 2-mm i.d. tubes arranged in a honeycomb type structure which is located in the middle of the test tube. This is aimed at promoting heat losses during the passage of the flame. The experiments were conducted with fuel-rich mixtures of methane–ethane–ethylene at initial pressures in the range of 0.1–0.6 MPa. These very rich mixtures were more or less diluted in inert, namely, N₂, as well as a mixture of CO₂ and Ar, in order to match with compositions that are currently used in the process industry. The experimental results show that this device is appropriate for flame quenching but, in most cases, detonations were not successfully arrested. These unsuccessful operations of the device occurred for flames at a high velocity, namely for Re numbers of the order of or greater than 15,000.     

氢氩混合气（5%∶95%）在空气中可爆性实验研究

为研究氢氩混合气（5%∶95%）在空气中爆炸时所对应氢、氧极限含量,按照爆炸性测试标准EN 1839—2017,测试氢氩混合气在与空气的总混合气体中不同占比时的可爆性。研究结果表明:氢氩混合气（5%∶95%）在总混合气体中体积分数为76.018%~86.029%时,总混和气体具有爆炸危险性,与之对应能够发生爆炸的最低氢气体积分数为3.8%,最低氧气体积分数为2.93%,不具有爆炸性的最高氧含量为2.72%,该值较ISO 10156—2017《气体和气体混合物-气瓶阀口选择用潜在燃烧性和氧化能力的测定》中规定的极限氧含量低,研究结果可为氢氩气与空气的混合气体爆炸事故预防提供新的参考。     

A review on hybrid mixture explosions: Safety parameters,explosion regimes and criteria,flame characteristics

The hybrid mixture of combustible dusts and flammable gases/vapours widely exist in various industries, including mining, petrochemical, metallurgical, textile and pharmaceutical. It may pose a higher explosion risk than gas/vapor or dust/mist explosions since the hybrid explosions can still be initiated even though both the gas and the dust concentration are lower than their lower explosion limit (LEL) values. Understanding the explosion threat of hybrid mixtures not only contributes to the inherent safety and sustainability of industrial process design, but promotes the efficiency of loss prevention and mitigation. To date, however, there is no test standard with reliable explosion criteria available to determine the safety parameters of all types of hybrid mixture explosions, nor the flame propagation and quenching mechanism or theoretical explanation behind these parameters. This review presents a state-of-the-art overview of the comprehensive understanding of hybrid mixture explosions mainly in an experimental study level; thereby, the main limitations and challenges to be faced are explored. The discussed main contents include the experimental measurement for the safety parameters of hybrid mixtures (i.e., explosion sensitivity and severity parameters) via typical test apparatuses, explosion regime and criterion of hybrid mixtures, the detailed flame propagation/quenching characteristics behind the explosion severities/sensitivities of hybrid mixtures. This work aims to summarize the essential basics of experimental studies, and to provide the perspectives based on the current research gaps to understand the explosion hazards of hybrid mixtures in-depth.     

Experimental study on gas explosion and venting process in interconnected vessels

A pilot scale interconnected vessels experiment system was established, and the closed and vented gas explosion characteristics in the system were studied, using 10% methane–air mixture. Regularity of pressure variation in vessels and flame propagation in linked pipes was analyzed. Furthermore, the effects of transmission style, ignition position, pipe length, and initial pressure on explosion severity were discussed. For the closed explosion: explosion in interconnected vessels presents strongly destructive power to secondary vessel, especially transmission from the big vessel to the small one; the worst ignition position is shifting from ignition in the interconnected pipe to the walls of the two vessels; as far as ignition in big vessel is concerned, the peak pressure in secondary vessel increases with the pipe length much faster than that for ignition in small vessel; the peak pressures in two vessels are approximate linear functions of initial pressure. For the vented explosion: the transmission style and interconnected pipe length have significant impacts on the effect of venting on the protection; in order to obtain the better venting effect, the use of a divergent interconnected pipe from the big vessel to the small one in industry is advised and it is necessary to reduce the interconnected pipe length as far as possible or install flame arrester in the interconnected pipe.     

Effects of hydrogen addition on the confined and vented explosion behavior of methane in air

Multi-component gas mixture explosion accidents occur and recur frequently, while the safety issues of multi-component gas mixture explosion for hydrogen–methane mixtures have rarely been addressed.Numerical simulation study on the confined and vented explosion characteristics of methane-hydrogen mixture in stoichiometric air was conducted both in the 5 L vessel and the 64 m³ chamber, involving different mixture compositions and initial pressures. Based on the results and analysis, it is shown that the addition of hydrogen has a negative effect on the explosion pressure of methane-hydrogen mixture at adiabatic condition. While in the vented explosion, the addition of the hydrogen has a significant positive effect on the explosion hazard degree. Additionally, the addition of hydrogen can induce a faster reactivity and enhance the sensitivity of the mixture by reducing the explosion time and increasing the rate of pressure rise both in confined and vented explosion. Both the maximum pressure and the maximum rate of pressure rise increase with initial pressure as a linear function, and also rise with the increase of hydrogen content in fuel. The increase in the maximum rate of pressure rise is slight when hydrogen ratio is lower than 0.5, however, it become significant when hydrogen ratio is higher than 0.5. The maximum rate of pressure rise for stoichiometric hydrogen-air is about 10 times the one of stoichiometric methane-air.Furthermore, the vent plays an important role to relief pressure, causing the decrease in explosion pressure and rate of pressure rise, while it can greatly enhance the flame speed, which will extend the hazard range and induce secondary fire damages. Additionally it appears that the addition of hydrogen has a significant increasing effect on the flame speed. The propagation of flame speed in confined explosion can be divided into two stages, increase stage and decrease stage, higher hydrogen content, higher slope. But in the vented explosion, the flame speed keeps increasing with the distance from the ignition point.     

Distinction between the upper explosion limit and the lower cool flame limit in determination of flammability limit at elevated conditions

Previous research showed that at certain conditions, close to the flammability range exists a regime where cool flame may develop either due to elevated temperature or it may be initiated by an ignition source. Propagation of the cool flame in a closed test vessel may double the initial pressure. Such pressure increase exceeds recommended ignition criteria for explosion limit determination that are based on 5 or 7% of pressure rise leading to inaccurate classification of the oxidation phenomena, i.e. cool flame propagation may be classified as hot flame propagation.Two mixtures were tested: n-butane-oxygen (extensively) and C1–C2–oxygen (in limited range), which represent a typical composition in ethylene oxide production, at elevated conditions at their upper explosion limits. Flame development was analysed by flame emission spectroscopy and the post-oxidation mixture was analysed by gas chromatography (GC) to characterise the oxidation mechanism of the flame. Additionally explosion pressure rise, flame temperature, and maximum rate of pressure rise were measured. In all experiments with the pressure rise ratio below two the low temperature oxidation mechanism assisted the flame propagation.     

密闭空间内天然气混合及爆炸传播规律研究

为研究密闭容器内甲烷-空气不均匀分布对混合气体燃烧的影响,将数值模拟和实验相结合,发现在重力作用下混合气体浓度分布不均匀,长径比越大的容器,混合气体浓度分布梯度越大。混合气体浓度分布影响气体火焰传播规律。宏观浓度为5%的甲烷与空气混合后,容器上部甲烷浓度高于5%,在该处点火时非均匀混合甲烷-空气火焰传播较快,非均匀混合气体的爆炸压力比均匀混合气体压力上升快,且分层混合气体的超压峰值高于均匀混合气体的值。由于浓度分布不均匀,点火位置影响甲烷/空气火焰传播的规律。     

Estimation of safety distances in the vicinity of fuel gas pipelines

In this paper, safety distances around pipelines transmitting liquefied petroleum gas and pressurized natural gas are determined considering the possible outcomes of an accidental event associated with fuel gas release from pressurized transmission systems. Possible outcomes of an accidental fuel gas release were determined by performing the Event Tree Analysis approach. Safety distances were computed for two pipeline transmission systems of pressurized natural gas and liquefied petroleum gas existing in Greece using real data given by Greek Refineries and the Greek Public Gas Enterprise. The software packages chetah and breeze were used for thermochemical mixture properties estimation and quantitative consequence assessment, respectively. Safety distance determination was performed considering jet fire and gas dispersion to the lower flammable limit as the worst-case scenarios corresponding to immediate and delayed cloud ignition. The results showed that the jet fire scenario should be considered as the limiter for safety distances determination in the vicinity of natural and petroleum gas pipelines. Based on this conclusion, the obtained results were further treated to yield functional diagrams for prompt safety distance estimation. In addition, qualitative conclusions were made regarding the effect of atmospheric conditions on possible events. Thus, wind velocity was found to dominate during a jet fire event suppressing the thermal radiation effect, whereas gas dispersion was found to be affected mainly by solar radiation that favors the faster dissolution of fuel gas below the lower flammable limit.     

无机包覆聚苯乙烯泡沫板烟气产生规律研究

聚苯乙烯泡沫板在建筑节能中具有重要应用,其阻燃防火性能影响建筑火灾安全。应用UL-94垂直燃烧性能测试方法研究无机包覆聚苯乙烯泡沫板在垂直状态下的燃烧情况,结果表明包覆后的聚苯乙烯试样的等级可达到V-1以上;应用烟密度仪和气体分析仪研究无机包覆聚苯乙烯泡沫板燃烧烟气产生规律,结果表明MgSO_4/MgO、α-石膏、无机黏结剂、无机粘结剂/膨润土均对聚苯乙烯泡沫起到阻燃效果,并对烟气产生抑制作用,抑烟能力由大到小为MgSO_4/MgO,α-石膏、无机黏结剂/膨润土、无机黏结剂。同时能不同程度地影响聚苯乙烯泡沫燃烧时产生CO_2、CO有毒有害气体的体积分数,其中CO_2的最大体积分数分别为2.09%、1.79%、1.52%、1.62%;CO的最大体积分数分别为434×10~(-6)、340×10~(-6)、358×10~(-6)、369×10~(-6),从数据分析可知,4种无机包覆聚苯板中,无机黏结剂在4种包覆剂中对CO_2生成的影响效果更佳,α-石膏在4种包覆剂中对CO生成的影响效果更佳。     

200 MW燃气流风洞高压氧气系统安全操作分析

为保证200 MW燃气流风洞高压氧气系统安全运行,从初始能量出发,对高压氧气系统充气、供气、排气时管道内的激波管流动、绝热压缩等过程进行安全分析,并提出针对性安全措施。结果表明:对于充气管道内存在的激波管流动,当驱动气体压力为20 MPa、被驱动气体压力为0.1 MPa时,激波反射后末端气体温度远远高于200 ℃,通过减小阀门开启速度,对阀前管道进行充气以减小上下游压差,可避免因绝热压缩产生的高温;供气管道充填时,管道内最高温度为73 ℃,通过控制充填速度,可进一步降低管道内氧气温度;通过高压排气、低压排气2种模式,可满足国标中对氧气流速的要求。研究结果可为氧气管道远程安全操作提供参考。     

基于绝热火焰温度多元混合气体可燃性极限的理论预测

为了预测多元混合气体可燃性极限,通过化学平衡计算软件分析确定了气体在可燃性下限（LFL）和可燃性上限（UFL）的燃烧产物及计算绝热火焰温度（CAFT）,基于能量平衡方程和简化反应模型,分别建立了混合气体LFL和UFL预测模型。应用该预测模型对CH4、C2H4、C3H8、C3H6和CO组成的不同比例混合气体可燃性极限进行预测。结果表明:简化反应模型对于LFL和UFL预测值与文献中实验值的平均相对误差分别为2.76%和5.45%,相关系数分别为0.995和0.950;同时发现两步简化模型对含有C2H4和CO混合组分预测结果误差较大,但对于平均碳原子数大于2的混合气体,预测结果一致性较好。