Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urban atmosphere of Hong Kong

The assessment of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) has become a major issue of air quality network monitoring in Hong Kong. This study is aimed to identify, quantify and characterize volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in different urban areas in Hong Kong. The spatial distribution, temporal variation as well as correlations of VOCs at five roadside sampling sites were discussed. Twelve VOCs were routinely detected in urban areas (Mong Kok, Kwai Chung, Yuen Long and Causeway Bay). The concentrations of VOCs ranged from undetectable to 1396 microg/m3. Among all of the VOC species, toluene has the highest concentration. Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) were the major constituents (more than 60% in composition of total VOC detected), mainly contributed from mobile sources. Similar to other Asian cities, the VOC levels measured in urban areas in Hong Kong were affected both by automobile exhaust and industrial emissions. High toluene to benzene ratios (average T/B ratio = 5) was also found in Hong Kong as in other Asian cities. In general, VOC concentrations in the winter were higher than those measured in the summer (winter to summer ratio > 1). As toluene and benzene were the major pollutants from vehicle exhausts, there is a necessity to tighten automobile emission standards in Hong Kong.     

Seasonal patterns of non-terpenoid C6-C10 VOC emission from seven Mediterranean woody species

The seasonal pattern of non-terpenoid C6-C10 VOC emission by seven Mediterranean woody species (Bupleurum fruticosum, Cistus albidus, Pinus halepensis, Arbutus unedo, Erica arborea, Quercus coccifera, and Q. ilex) was studied under field conditions. Branch chamber samples were sorbed on carbotrap and analyzed by thermal desorption in combination with GC-MS. These non-terpenoid C6-C10 VOC emissions were large, almost of similar magnitude to those of terpenes. Overall, maximum values were recorded in spring and summer (up to 12 microg g(-1) DM h(-1) in Q. ilex) and minimum values in autumn and winter (up to 5 microg g(-1) DM h(-1) in Q. ilex). These C6-C10 VOC emissions represented 2.82% of the photosynthetic C fixation in summer and 0.22% in winter. Some compounds such as 2-ethoxyethyl acetate were emitted by most species, others such as 3-hexen-1-ol, phenol or decanal were significantly emitted only by few species. The greatest diversity of emitted non-terpenoid C6-C10 VOCs was observed in spring and in Q. ilex. Temperature seemed a strong driver of these seasonal changes but other species-specific and seasonal factors seem involved. These results indicate that C6-C10 non-terpenoid VOCs contribute a rather significant fraction of the total biogenic VOC flux from these Mediterranean species, especially in spring and summer, and therefore should be considered in VOC emission inventories and in model predictions of tropospheric chemistry.     

Risk factors for increased BTEX exposure in four Australian cities

Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylenes (BTEX) are common volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in urban airsheds. Elevated levels of VOCs have been reported in many airsheds at many locations, particularly those associated with industrial activity, wood heater use and heavy traffic. Exposure to some VOCs has been associated with health risks. There have been limited investigations into community exposures to BTEX using personal monitoring to elucidate the concentrations to which members of the community may be exposed and the main contributors to that exposure. In this cross sectional study we investigated BTEX exposure of 204 non-smoking, non-occupationally exposed people from four Australian cities. Each participant wore a passive BTEX sampler over 24h on five consecutive days in both winter and summer and completed an exposure source questionnaire for each season and a diary for each day of monitoring. The geometric mean (GM) and range of daily BTEX concentrations recorded for the study population were benzene 0.80 (0.04-23.8 ppb); toluene 2.83 (0.03-2120 ppb); ethylbenzene 0.49 (0.03-119 ppb); and xylenes 2.36 (0.04-697 ppb). A generalised linear model was used to investigate significant risk factors for increased BTEX exposure. Activities and locations found to increase personal exposure included vehicle repair and machinery use, refuelling of motor vehicles, being in an enclosed car park and time spent undertaking arts and crafts. A highly significant difference was found between the mean exposures in each of the four cities, which may be explained by differences in fuel composition, differences in the mix and density of industry, density of motor vehicles and air pollution meteorology.     

Characterization of hydrocarbons, halocarbons and carbonyls in the atmosphere of Hong Kong

Ambient air quality measurements of 156 species including 39 alkanes, 32 alkenes, 2 alkynes, 24 aromatic hydrocarbons, 43 halocarbons and 16 carbonyls, were carried out for 120 air samples collected at two sampling stations (CW and TW) in 2001 throughout Hong Kong. Spatial variations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the atmosphere were investigated. Levels of most alkanes and alkenes at TW site were higher than that at the CW site, while the BTEX concentrations at the two sites were close. The BTEX ratios at CW and TW were 1.6:10.1:1.0:1.6 and 2.1:10.8:1.0:2.0, respectively. For major halogenated hydrocarbons, the mean concentrations of chloromethane, CFCs 12 and 22 did not show spatial variations at the two sites. However, site-specific differences were observed for trichloroethene and tetrachloroethene. Furthermore, there were no significant differences for carbonyls such as formaldehyde, acetaldehyde and acetone between the two sites. The levels of selected hydrocarbons in winter were 1-5 times that in summer. There were no common seasonal trends for carbonyls in Hong Kong. The ambient level of formaldehyde, the most abundant carbonyl, was higher in summer. However, levels of acetaldehyde, acetone and benzaldehyde in winter were 1.6-3.8 times that in summer. The levels of CFCs 11 and 12, and chloromethane in summer were higher than that in winter. Strong correlation of most hydrocarbons with propene and n-butane suggested that the primary contributors of hydrocarbons were vehicular emissions in Hong Kong. In addition, gasoline evaporation, use of solvents, leakage of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas leakage and other industrial emissions, and even biogenic emissions affected the ambient levels of hydrocarbons. The sources of halocarbons were mainly materials used in industrial processes and as solvents. Correlation analysis suggested that photochemical reactions made significant contributions to the ambient levels of carbonyls in summer whereas in winter motor vehicle emissions would be the major sources of the carbonyls. The photochemical reactivity of selected VOCs was estimated in this study. The largest contributors to ozone formation were formaldehyde, toluene, propene, m,p-xylene, acetaldehyde, 1-butene/i-butene, isoprene and n-butane, suggesting that motor vehicles, gasoline evaporation, use of solvents, leakage of LPG, photochemical processes and biogenic emission are sources in the production of ozone. On the other hand, VOCs from vehicles and gasoline evaporation were predominant with respect to reactions with OH radical.     

Field monitoring of volatile organic compounds using passive air samplers in an industrial city in Japan

Highly portable, sensitive, and selective passive air samplers were used to investigate ambient volatile organic compound (VOC) levels at multiple sampling sites in an industrial city, Fuji, Japan. We determined the spatial distributions of 27 species of VOCs in three campaigns: Mar (cold season), May (warm season), and Nov (mild season) of 2004. In all campaigns, toluene (geometric mean concentration, 14.0microg/m3) was the most abundant VOC, followed by acetaldehyde (4.76microg/m3), and formaldehyde (2.58microg/m3). The spatial distributions for certain VOCs showed characteristic patterns: high concentrations of benzene and formaldehyde were typically found along major roads, whereas high concentrations of toluene and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) were usually found near factories. The spatial distribution of PCE observed was extremely consistent with the diffusion pattern calculated from Pollutant Release and Transfer Register data and meteorological data, indicated that passive air samplers are useful for determining the sources and distributions of ambient VOCs.     

Landfill Gas Effects on Groundwater Samples at a Municipal Solid Waste Facility

A study was performed to determine the source of low concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) detected in groundwater samples at a solid waste management facility. The affected wells were identified as hydraulically upgradient of an old unlined facility, but downgradient of a new clay-lined landfill. These monitoring wells are close to both sites. Subsurface landfill gas migration was identified after a low permeability cap was installed on the older site. Subsurface gas pressure was monitored to identify horizontal landfill gas migration. Monitoring well headspace gases were evaluated to identify depressed oxygen concentrations and methane because of landfill gas migration into the well. Monitoring well headspace gas VOC concentrations were compared to groundwater VOC concentrations to determine the direction of phase transfer. A ratio above 1.0 of the observed well headspace gas concentration of a VOC to the concentration that would be in equilibrium with the groundwater concentration indicates gas-to-water phase transfer within the well. For the major gas-phase and aqueous-phase VOC, cis-1,2-dichloroethene, gas-to-water phase transfer is clearly indicated from the data for two of the four wells. Fifteen other VOCs were detected in monitoring well headspace gases but not in groundwater samples from the four wells studied. Only one compound in one well was detected in the groundwater sample but not in the headspace gases, and only one compound in one well was detected in both matrices at concentrations that suggested water-to-gas phase transfer. This study suggests that if landfill gas is suspected as the source of detected VOCs, monitoring well construction and stratigraphy are important considerations when attempting to differentiate between groundwater contamination by landfill gas and contamination from other sources.     

Source profiles of volatile organic compounds associated with solvent use in Beijing,China

Compositions of volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from painting applications and printing processes were sampled and measured by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry/flame ionization detection (GC–MS/FID) in Beijing. Toluene and C8 aromatics were the most abundant species, accounting for 76% of the total VOCs emitted from paint applications. The major species in printing emissions included heavier alkanes and aromatics, such as n-nonane, n-decane, n-undecane, toluene, and m/p-xylene. Measurements of VOCs obtained from furniture paint emissions in 2003 and 2007 suggest a quick decline in benzene levels associated with formulation changes in furniture paints during these years. A comparison of VOC source profiles for painting and printing between Beijing and other parts of the world showed significant region-specific discrepancies, probably because of different market demands and environmental standards. We conducted the evaluation of the source reactivities for various VOC emission sources. The ozone formation potential (OFP) for unit mass of VOCs source emissions is the highest for paint applications. Substituting solvent-based paints by water-based in Beijing will lead to an OFP reduction of 152,000 tons per year, which is more than 1/4 of the OFPs for VOCs emissions from vehicle exhaust in the city.     

Correlation of ambient inhalable bioaerosols with particulate matter and ozone: a two-year study

In this study, we have examined the relationships between the concentrations of ambient inhalable airborne fungi and pollen with PM10, PM2.5, ozone, organic carbon, selected trace metals (cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc), temperature, and relative humidity. The database was collected in Cincinnati, Ohio, USA, during two consecutive years. Measurements of all environmental variables were performed at the same site continuously 5 days a week except during winter months. The airborne concentrations of biological and non-biological pollutants ranged as follows: total fungi: 184-16 979 spores m(-3); total pollen: 0-6692 pollen m(-3); PM10: 6.70-65.38 microg m(-3); PM2.5: 5.04-45.02 microg m(-3); and ozone: 2.54-64.17 ppb. Higher levels of total inhalable fungi and particulate matter were found during fall and summer months. In contrast, total pollen concentration showed elevated levels in spring. Peak concentrations of ozone were observed during summer and beginning of fall. Our study concluded that several types of inhalable airborne fungi and pollen, particulate matter, and ozone could be positively correlated as a result of the atmospheric temperature influence.     

Emission,speciation, and evaluation of impacts of non-methane volatile organic compounds from open dump site

Surface emission from Dhapa, the only garbage disposal ground in Kolkata, is a matter of concern to the local environment and also fuels the issues of occupational and environmental health. Surface emission of the Dhapa landfill site was studied using a flux chamber measurement for nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs). Eighteen noncarbonyl volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and 14 carbonyl VOCs, including suspected and known carcinogens, were found in appreciable concentrations. The concentrations of the target species in the flux chamber were found to be significantly higher for most of the species in summer than winter. Surface emission rate of landfill gas was estimated by using two different approaches to assess the applicability for an open landfill site. It was found that the emissions predicted using the model Land GEM version 3.02 is one to two orders less than the emission rate calculated from flux chamber measurement for the target species. Tropospheric ozone formation has a serious impact for NMVOC emission. The total ozone-forming potential (OFP) of the Dhapa dumping ground considering all target NMVOCs was estimated to be 4.9E+04 and 1.2E+05 g/day in winter and summer, respectively. Also, it was found that carbonyl VOCs play a more important role than noncarbonyl VOCs for tropospheric ozone formation. Cumulative cancer risk estimated for all the carcinogenic species was found to be 2792 for 1 million population, while the total noncancer hazard index (HI) was estimated to be 246 for the occupational exposure to different compounds from surface emission to the dump-site workers at Dhapa.

Implications:This paper describes the real-time surface emission of NMVOCs from an open municipal solid waste (MSW) dump site studied using a flux chamber. Our study findings indicate that while planning for new landfill site in tropical meteorology, real-time emission data must be considered, rather than relying on modeled data. The formation of tropospheric ozone from emitted NMVOC has also been studied. Our result shows how an open landfill site acts as a source and adds to the tropospheric ozone for the airshed of a metropolitan city.     

Vertical and diurnal characterization of volatile organic compounds in ambient air in urban areas

More than half of the world's population lives in cities, and their populations are rapidly increasing. Information on vertical and diurnal characterizations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in urban areas with heavy ambient air pollution can help further understand the impact of ambient VOCs on the local urban environment. This study characterized vertical and diurnal variations in VOCs at 2, 13, 32, 58, and 111 m during four daily time periods (7:00 to 9:00 a.m., 12:00 to 2:00 p.m., 5:00 to 7:00 p.m., and 11:00 p.m. to 1:00 a.m.) at the upwind of a high-rise building in downtown, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan. The study used gas chromatography-mass spectrometry to analyze air samples collected by silica-coated canisters. The vertical distributions of ambient VOC profiles showed that VOCs tended to decrease at greater heights. However, VOC levels were found to be higher at 13 m than at ground level at midnight from 11:00 p.m. to 1:00 a.m. and higher at 32 than 13 m between 7:00 and 9:00 a.m. These observations suggest that vertical dispersion and dilution of airborne pollutants could be jointly affected by local meteorological conditions and the proximity of pollution sources. The maximum concentration of VOCs was recorded during the morning rush hours from 7:00 to 9:00 a.m., followed by rush hours from 5:00 to 7:00 p.m., hours from 12:00 to 2:00 p.m., and hours from 11:00 p.m. to 1:00 a.m., indicating that the most VOC compounds in urban air originate from traffic and transportation emissions. The benzene-toluene-ethyl benzene-xylene (BTEX) source analysis shows that BTEX at all heights were mostly associated with vehicle transportation activities on the ground.     

Evaluation of non-enteric sources of non-methane volatile organic compound (NMVOC) emissions from dairies

Dairies are believed to be a major source of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in Central California, but few studies have characterized VOC emissions from these facilities. In this work, samples were collected from six sources of VOCs (Silage, Total Mixed Rations, Lagoons, Flushing Lanes, Open Lots and Bedding) at six dairies in Central California during 2006–2007 using emission isolation flux chambers and polished stainless steel canisters. Samples were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and gas chromatography/flame ionization detection. Forty-eight VOCs were identified and quantified in the samples, including alcohols, carbonyls, alkanes and aromatics. Silage and Total Mixed Rations are the dominant sources of VOCs tested, with ethanol as the major VOC present. Emissions from the remaining sources are two to three orders of magnitude smaller, with carbonyls and aromatics as the main components. The data suggest that animal feed rather than animal waste are the main source of non-enteric VOC emissions from dairies.     

Comparison of seasonal phenol and p-cresol emissions from ground-level area sources in a dairy operation in central Texas

Although there are more than 200 odor-causing volatile organic compounds (VOCs), phenol and p-cresol are two prominent odor-causing VOCs found downwind from concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs). The VOC emissions from cattle and dairy production are difficult to quantify accurately because of their low concentrations, spatial variability, and limitations of available instruments. To quantify VOCs, a protocol following US. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Method TO-14A has been established based on the isolation flux chamber method and a portable gas chromatograph (GC) coupled with a purge-and-trap system. The general objective of this research was to quantify phenol and p-cresol emission rates (ERs) from different ground-level area sources (GLASs) in a free-stall dairy during summer and winter seasons using this protocol. Two-week-long sampling campaigns were conducted in a dairy operation in central Texas. Twenty-nine air samples were collected during winter and 37 samples were collected during summer from six specifically delineated GLASs (barn, loafing pen, lagoon, settling basin, silage pile, and walkway) at the free-stall dairy. Thirteen VOCs were identified during the sampling period and the GC was calibrated for phenol and p-cresol, the primary odorous VOCs identified. The overall calculated ERs for phenol and p-cresol were 2656 +/- 728 and 763 +/- 212 mg hd(-1) day(-1), respectively, during winter. Overall phenol and p-cresol ERs were calculated to be 1183 +/- 361 and 551 +/- 214 mg hd(-1) day(-1), respectively, during summer. In general, overall phenol and p-cresol ERs during winter were about 2.3 and 1.4 times, respectively, higher than those during summer.     

Spatial variation of volatile organic compounds in a "Hot Spot" for air pollution

The spatial variations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were characterized in the Village of Waterfront South neighborhood (WFS), a "hot spot" for air toxics in Camden, NJ. This was accomplished by conducting "spatial saturation sampling" for 11 VOCs using 3500 OVM passive samplers at 22 sites in WFS and 16 sites in Copewood/Davis Streets (CDS) neighborhood, an urban reference area located ～1000 m east of the WFS. Sampling durations were 24 and 48 h. For all 3 sampling campaigns (2 in summer and 1 in winter), the spatial variations and median concentrations of toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (TEX) were found significantly higher (p < 0.05) in WFS than in CDS, where the spatial distributions of these compounds were relatively uniform. The highest concentrations of methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) (maximum of 159 μg m(-3)) were always found at one site close to a car scrapping facility in WFS during each sampling campaign. The spatial variation of benzene in WFS was found to be marginally higher (p = 0.057) than in CDS during one sampling campaign, but similar in the other two sampling periods. The results obtained from the analyses of correlation among all species and the proximity of sampling site to source indicated that local stationary sources in WFS have significant impact on MTBE and BTEX air pollution in WFS, and both mobile sources and some of the stationary sources in WFS contributed to the ambient levels of these species measured in CDS. The homogenous spatial distributions (%RSD < 24%) and low concentrations of chloroform (0.02-0.23 μg m(-3)) and carbon tetrachloride (0.45-0.51 μg m(-3)) indicated no significant local sources in the study areas. Further, results showed that the sampling at the fixed monitoring site may under- or over-estimate air pollutant levels in a "hot spot" area, suggesting that the "spatial saturation sampling" is necessary for conducting accurate assessment of air pollution and personal exposure in a community with a high density of sources.     

VOC in an urban and industrial harbor on the French North Sea coast during two contrasted meteorological situations

Two measurement campaigns of volatile organic compounds (VOC) were carried out in the industrial city of Dunkerque, using Radiello passive samplers during winter (16–23 January) and summer (6–13 June) 2007. 174 compounds were identified belonging to six chemical families. Classifying sampling sites with similar chemical profiles by hierarchical ascending classification resulted in 4 groups that reflected the influence of the main industrial and urban sources of pollution. Also, the BTEX (Benzene, Toluene, Ethylbenzene and Xylenes) quantification allowed us to map their levels of concentration. Benzene and toluene (BT) showed high concentrations in Northern Dunkerque reflecting the influence of two industrial plants. Differences among spatial distributions of the BT concentrations over contrasted meteorological conditions were also observed. An atypical ratio of T/B in the summer samples led us to investigate the BTEX origins shedding light on the contribution of pollutants transported across various zones of VOC emissions situated in Europe.     

C1–C8 volatile organic compounds in the atmosphere of Hong Kong: Overview of atmospheric processing and source apportionment

We present measurements of C₁–C₈ volatile organic compounds (VOCs) at four sites ranging from urban to rural areas in Hong Kong from September 2002 to August 2003. A total of 248 ambient VOC samples were collected. As expected, the urban and sub-urban sites generally gave relatively high VOC levels. In contrast, the average VOC levels were the lowest in the rural area. In general, higher mixing ratios were observed during winter/spring and lower levels during summer/fall because of seasonal variations of meteorological conditions. A variation of the air mass composition from urban to rural sites was observed. High ratios of ethyne/CO (5.6 pptv/ppbv) and propane/ethane (0.50 pptv/pptv) at the rural site suggested that the air masses over the territory were relatively fresh as compared to other remote regions. The principal component analysis (PCA) with absolute principal component scores (APCS) technique was applied to the VOC data in order to identify and quantify pollution sources at different sites. These results indicated that vehicular emissions made a significant contribution to ambient non-methane VOCs (NMVOCs) levels in urban areas (65±36%) and in sub-urban areas (50±28% and 53±41%). Other sources such as petrol evaporation, industrial emissions and solvent usage also played important roles in the VOC emissions. At the rural site, almost half of the measured total NMVOCs were due to combustion sources (vehicular and/or biomass/biofuel burning). Petrol evaporation, solvent usage, industrial and biogenic emissions also contributed to the atmospheric NMVOCs. The source apportionment results revealed a strong impact of anthropogenic VOCs to the atmosphere of Hong Kong in both urban/sub-urban and rural areas.     

Source apportionment of ambient total suspended particulates and coarse particulate matter in urban areas of Jiaozuo, China

Approximately 750 total suspended particulates (TSPs) and coarse particulate matter (PM10) filter samples from six urban sites and a background site and >210 source samples were collected in Jiaozuo City during January 2002 to April 2003. They were analyzed for mass and abundances of 25 chemical components. Seven contributive sources were identified, and their contributions to ambient TSP/PM10 levels at the seven sites in three seasons (spring, summer, and winter days) and a "whole" year were estimated by a chemical mass balance (CMB) receptor model. The spatial TSP average was high in spring and winter days at a level of approximately 530 microg/m(3) and low in summer days at 456 microg/m(3); however, the spatial PMo0 average exhibited little variation at a level of approximately 325 microg/m(3), and PM10-to-TSP ratios ranged from 0.58 to 0.81, which suggested heavy particulate matter pollution existing in the urban areas. Apportionment results indicated that geological material was the largest contributor to ambient TSP/PM10 concentrations, followed by dust emissions from construction activities, coal combustion, secondary aerosols, vehicle movement, and other industrial sources. In addition, paved road dust and re-entrained dust were also apportioned to the seven source types and found soil, coal combustion, and construction dust to be the major contributors.     

The emission patterns of volatile organic compounds during aerobic biotreatment of municipal solid waste using continuous and intermittent aeration

Because volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are one of the main concerns during municipal solid waste (MSW) treatment, the release patterns and the environmental effects of VOCs were investigated during laboratory-scale aerobic biotreatments of MSW with continuous and intermittent negative ventilation. When the same airflow amounts were used, intermittent ventilation was found to reduce the total VOC emissions from continuous ventilation process by 28%. In this study, 23 types of volatile organic compounds were analyzed, of which butyraldehyde, ethanol, and butanone were emitted in the highest concentrations of 748, 372, and 260 mg/m3, respectively. During the aerobic biotreatment process, ketones, aldehydes, and alcohols were primarily released during the first 4 days, accounting for 86-98% of the total VOC emissions during this period. The emission concentrations of malodorous sulfide compounds displayed two peaks on day 4 and day 9, with the contribution to the total VOC emissions being enhanced from less than 10% to 76-83%. The release of terpenes and aromatics lasted for more than 10 days with no significant emission peaks and the proportions of those compounds in the total VOCs increased gradually, but no more than 50% even at the end of the process. Considering the strength of the odors, aldehydes were the predominant contributors at the beginning of the experiment, whereas malodorous sulfide compounds became the most odorous compound as the biological process continued. Most of the VOCs emitted at the concentrations beneath the level causing health threat to the workers.     

Revealing source signatures in ambient BTEX concentrations

Management of ambient concentrations of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) is essential for maintaining low ozone levels in urban areas where its formation is under a VOC-limited regime. The significant decrease in traffic-induced VOC emissions in many developed countries resulted in relatively comparable shares of traffic and non-traffic VOC emissions in urban airsheds. A key step for urban air quality management is allocating ambient VOC concentrations to their pertinent sources. This study presents an approach that can aid in identifying sources that contribute to observed BTEX concentrations in areas characterized by low BTEX concentrations, where traditional source apportionment techniques are not useful. Analysis of seasonal and diurnal variations of ambient BTEX concentrations from two monitoring stations located in distinct areas reveal the possibility to identify source categories. Specifically, the varying oxidation rates of airborne BTEX compounds are used to allocate contributions of traffic emissions and evaporative sources to observed BTEX concentrations.     

Near-road multipollutant profiles: associations between volatile organic compounds and a tracer gas surrogate near a busy highway

This research characterizes associations between multiple pollutants in the near-road environment attributed to a roadway line source. It also examines the use of a tracer gas as a surrogate of mobile source pollutants. Air samples were collected in summa canisters along a 300 m transect normal to a highway in Raleigh, North Carolina for five sampling periods spanning four days. Samples were subsequently measured for volatile organic compounds (VOCs) using an electron capture gas chromatograph. Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) was released from a finite line source adjacent to the roadway for two of the sampling periods, collected in the canisters and measured with the VOCs. Associations between each VOC, and between VOCs and the tracer, were quantified with Pearson correlation coefficients to assess the consistency of the multi-pollutant dispersion profiles, and assess the tracer as a potential surrogate for mobile source pollutants. As expected, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and m,p- and o-xylenes (collectively, BTEX) show strong correlations between each other; further BTEX shows a strong correlation to SF6. Between 26 VOCs, correlation coefficients were greater than 0.8, and 14 VOCs had coefficients greater than 0.6 with the tracer gas. Even under non-downwind conditions, chemical concentrations had significant correlations with distance. Results indicate that certain VOCs are representative of a larger multi-pollutant mixture, and many VOCs are well-correlated with the tracer gas.     

Effects of ozone, acid mist and soil characteristics on clonal Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.)--an introduction to the joint 14 month tree exposure experiment in closed chambers

This paper introduces a series of publications referring to a single 14-month laboratory study testing the hypothesis that the recent decline of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) at higher elevations of the Bavarian Forest and comparable forests in medium-range mountains and in the calcareous Alps is caused by an interaction of elevated ozone concentrations, acid mist and site-specific soil (nutritional) characteristics. The effect of climatic extremes, a further important factor, was not included as an experimental variable but was considered by testing of the frost resistance of the experimental plants. Results of these individual studies are presented and discussed in the following 14 papers. Plants from six pre-selected clones of 3-year-old Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) were planted in April 1985 in an acidic soil from the Bavarian Forest, or a calcareous soil from the Bavarian Alps. After a transition period, plants were transferred, in July 1986, into four large environmental chambers and exposed for 14 months to an artificial climate and air pollutant regime based on long-term monitoring in the Inner Bavarian Forest. The climatic exposure protocol followed realistic seasonal and diurnal cycles (summer maximum temperature, 26 degrees C; total mean temperature, 9.8 degrees C; winter minimum, -14 degrees C; mean relative humidity, 70%; maximum irradiance, 500 W m(-2); daylength summer maximum, 17 h; winter minimum, 8 h). Plants were fumigated with ozone, generated from pure oxygen (control: annual mean of 50 microg m(-3); pollution treatment: annual mean of 100 microg m(-3) with 68 episodes of 130-360 microg m(-3) lasting 4-24 h), and background concentrations of SO(2) (22 microg m(-3)) and NO(2) (20 microg m(-3)); windspeed was set at a constant 0.6 m s(-1). Plants were additionally exposed to prolonged episodes of misting at pH 5.6 (control) and pH 3.0 (treatment). Simulation of the target climatic and fumigation conditions was highly reliable and reproducible (temperature +/-0.5 degrees C; rh+/-10%; ozone+/-10 microg m(-3);SO(2) and NO(2)+/-15 microg m(-3)).