Mitigation paths for Chinese iron and steel industry to tackle global climate change

Based on a recognition of the essence of climate change and the pressure on China to reduce its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, this paper interprets the important role that the Chinese iron and steel industry may play in managing emissions. Through an investigation of the key sources of GHG emissions in the Chinese iron and steel industry, a comparison of the current Chinese and international situations, and a survey of the technology and methods available for reducing GHG emissions, and their application in China, the authors analyze the major issues currently faced by the Chinese iron and steel industry, and propose the following four approaches through which the industry might reduce its GHG emissions: (1) encouragement of clean development mechanism (CDM) projects, mainly involving secondary energy reuse, to provide capital and technology for GHG reduction activities in China; (2) stimulation of the social responsibility-based voluntary carbon market (VCM) to increase the long-term benefits for the Chinese iron and steel industry from emission reductions; (3) undertaking of strict energy auditing to help enterprises establish appropriate emission reduction targets and formulate reasonable plans; (4) promotion of emission reduction-oriented investment within the industry to obtain profits from project operation, while at the same time gaining extra compensation for emission reductions. More specifically, the design of each of these approaches should take into consideration the related economic factors and incentive mechanisms.     

城市空气质量达标规划编制中的关键技术及其案例应用

本文结合重庆市空气质量限期达标规划编制案例,介绍了城市空气质量达标规划编制中的几个关键技术及其具体应用,包括本地化污染源排放清单编制、污染物来源解析、污染物排放形势预测与减排潜力分析以及大气环境容量核算等。本地化污染源排放清单是城市空气质量达标规划编制的基础,针对现有污染源制定科学合理的减排方案是达标规划的核心内容。分析不同区域的污染物组分浓度特征、污染源贡献以及未来污染排放形势预测,有助于识别出制约未来空气质量达标的关键因素及污染源。基于污染源减排潜力和污染传输矩阵制定的污染源减排方案更具合理性和可行性,应用空气质量模型估算大气环境容量可为规划目标可达性提供依据。     

有关完善建筑节能CDM项目开发的探讨

清洁发展机制(CDM)是《京都议定书》提出的三种灵活的温室气体减排机制之一,允许通过发达国家与发展中国家合作使发达国家实现其减排目标的同时促进发展中国家的可持续发展。建筑节能是节能减排的重点领域,是CDM开发重点之一。但建筑节能CDM项目在推广力度、缺少具体方法学以及实施方面存在困难。通过对建筑节能CDM的障碍进行分析,认为应加强政策支持、宣传体系以及技术支持,以促进国内建筑行业充分利用CDM,促进建筑行业节能减排的发展。     

Tomato journeys from farm to fruit shop

Popular calls to buy products with fewer embodied greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions belie the complexity involved in providing accurate information necessary for such consumer decisions to be effective. This study follows greenhouse-grown tomatoes from Australian farms to fruit shops in Sydney, Australia and investigates practicalities of accounting for GHG emissions in this fresh food chain. Data came from semi-structured interviews with farmers, wholesalers who operate at the (wholesale) Sydney Markets and retailers. GHG emissions were estimated using quantitative methodologies including Australian National Greenhouse Account Factors. A qualitative analysis of stakeholder views and knowledge was also conducted. Conclusions include that, per unit of tomatoes, on-farm GHG emissions appear far greater than those from fuel used for transport to Sydney Markets, and from wholesale or retail activities. Food mile or more comprehensive carbon labelling would probably not be practical for this supply chain. Factors likely to affect potential change among higher emitting participants are costs and availability of lower GHG-emitting practices. Mixed-method studies help identify parts of a chain to target emission reduction efforts.     

Climate Change and Planning and Consultation for the UK Aviation White Paper

This note discusses environmental aspects of the planning and consultation process undertaken for the UK aviation White Paper. The process as a whole has involved some three years of forecasting and assessment of the operational, economic and environmental implications of some 28 options for airport expansion at 14 UK locations. Unconstrained passenger demand forecasts have been used as a basis for the planning and consultation, and a mitigation approach to environment has predominated. This is inadequate, given the climate impacts of the forecast aviation expansion. Greenhouse gas emissions reduction should be a high priority in transport infrastructure planning, not the subject of post-hoc analysis.     

A novel process integration,optimization and design approach for large-scale implementation of oxy-fired coal power plants with CO2 capture

The widespread use of fossil fuels within the current energy infrastructure is considered as the largest source of anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, which is largely blamed for global warming and climate change. At the current state of development, the risks and costs of non-fossil energy alternatives, such as nuclear, biomass, solar, and wind energy, are so high that they cannot replace the entire share of fossil fuels in the near future timeframe. Additionally, any rapid change towards non-fossil energy sources, even if possible, would result in large disruptions to the existing energy supply infrastructure. As an alternative, the existing and new fossil fuel-based plants can be modified or designed to be either “capture” or “capture-ready” plants in order to reduce their emission intensity through the capture and permanent storage of carbon dioxide in geological formations. This would give the coal-fired power generation units the option to sustain their operations for longer time, while meeting the stringent environmental regulations on air pollutants and carbon emissions in years to come.Currently, there are three main approaches to capturing CO₂ from the combustion of fossil fuels, namely, pre-combustion capture, post-combustion capture, and oxy-fuel combustion. Among these technology options, oxy-fuel combustion provides an elegant approach to CO₂ capture. In this approach, by replacing air with oxygen in the combustion process, a CO₂-rich flue gas stream is produced that can be readily compressed for pipeline transport and storage. In this paper, we propose a new approach that allows air to be partially used in the oxy-fired coal power plants. In this novel approach, the air can be used to carry the coal from the mills to the boiler (similar to the conventional air-fired coal power plants), while O₂ is added to the secondary recycle flow as well as directly to the combustion zone (if needed). From a practical point of view, this approach eliminates problems with the primary recycle and also lessens concerns about the air leakage into the system. At the same time, it allows the boiler and its back-end piping to operate under slight suction; this avoids the potential danger to the plant operators and equipment due to possible exposure to hot combustion gases, CO₂ and particulates. As well, by integrating oxy-fuel system components and optimizing the overall process over a wide range of operating conditions, an optimum or near-optimum design can be achieved that is both cost-effective and practical for large-scale implementation of oxy-fired coal power plants.     

Greenhouse gas emissions and energy balance of sunflower biodiesel: Identification of its key factors in the supply chain

The production of first generation biofuels, such as sunflower-based biodiesel, is potentially an option for diversifying the energy matrix in several South American countries. However, biofuels present environmental challenges, especially concerning the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This study, using a life-cycle approach, evaluates the GHG emissions and energy balance of the future nationwide production of sunflower-based biodiesel in Chile. Direct land use change is included in the analysis. The overall findings indicate that sunflower biodiesel, under the most likely production conditions, will have better environmental performance than fossil diesel in terms of both indicators. The agricultural stage is associated to key factors such as land use change, and nitrogen fertilizers. These factors contribute significantly to GHG emissions or energy demand in the biodiesel life cycle. The sensitivity analysis shows that no GHG emission saving could occur if nitrogen fertilizers rate exceeds 330 kg N/ha. In order to reduce the environmental impacts of this biofuel, improvement measures are suggested.     

Using coal for transportation in China: Life cycle GHG of coal-based fuel and electric vehicle,and policy implications

This paper compares the GHG emissions of coal-to-liquid (CTL) fuels to the GHG emissions of electric vehicles (EVs) powered with coal-to-electricity in China. A life cycle model is used to account for full fuel cycle and use-phase emissions, as well as vehicle cycle and battery manufacturing emissions. It is found that the reduction of life cycle GHG emissions of EVs charged by electricity generated from coal, without utilizing carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS) technology can be 3–36% when compared to petroleum-based gasoline car. The large range in emissions reduction potential is driven by the many different power generation technologies that are and could in the future be used to generate electricity in China. When CCS is employed in power plants, the GHG emission reductions increase to 60–70% compared to petroleum-based gasoline car. However, the use of coal to produce liquid transportation fuels (CTL fuels) will likely lead to significantly increased life cycle GHG emissions, potentially 30–140% higher than petroleum-based gasoline. When CCS is utilized in the CTL plant, the CTL fueled vehicles emit roughly equal GHG emissions to petroleum-based gasoline vehicles from the life cycle perspective. The authors conclude that policies are therefore needed in China in order to accelerate battery technology and infrastructural improvements for EV charging, increased energy efficiency management, and deployment of low-carbon technologies such as CCS.     

Exploring policy strategies for mitigating HFC emissions from refrigeration and air conditioning

The growing demand for cooling throughout the world, possibly increased by global climate change, requires the implementation of policies to mitigate the related greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy and refrigerant use in the refrigeration and air conditioning (RAC) sector. This article aims to contribute to the discussion on strategies to reduce HFC emissions from RAC by looking at their different temporal effects, caused by stock-flow dynamics. From scenario modeling, we find that containment strategies are often most effective in reducing HFC emissions in the short run, whereas phase out strategies have more potential in the long run. Further findings suggest that early and quick implementation of phase out strategies could lead to important reductions in cumulative HFC emissions, because stock build up is prevented. This timing effect is less pronounced for containment strategies. Lastly, emissions from disposal, if unabated, can lead to equally large emissions annually as those from use. Preference for several short-term benefits of containment strategies might lead to sub optimal emission reduction strategies, endangering long term GHG emission reduction.     

Use of contract models to improve environmental outcomes in transport infrastructure construction

The type of contract model may have a significant influence on achieving project objectives, including environmental and climate change goals. This research investigates non-standard contract models impacting greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in transport infrastructure construction in Australia. The research is based on the analysis of two case studies: an Early Contractor Involvement (ECI) contract and a Design and Construct (D&C) contract with GHG reduction requirements embedded in the contractor selection. Main findings support the use of ECIs for better integrating decisions made during the planning phase with the construction activities, and improve environmental outcomes while achieving financial and time savings.     

Life cycle assessment of a pulverized coal power plant with post-combustion capture, transport and storage of CO2

In this study the methodology of life cycle assessment has been used to assess the environmental impacts of three pulverized coal fired electricity supply chains with and without carbon capture and storage (CCS) on a cradle to grave basis. The chain with CCS comprises post-combustion CO₂ capture with monoethanolamine, compression, transport by pipeline and storage in a geological reservoir. The two reference chains represent sub-critical and state-of-the-art ultra supercritical pulverized coal fired electricity generation. For the three chains we have constructed a detailed greenhouse gas (GHG) balance, and disclosed environmental trade-offs and co-benefits due to CO₂ capture, transport and storage. Results show that, due to CCS, the GHG emissions per kWh are reduced substantially to 243 g/kWh. This is a reduction of 78 and 71% compared to the sub-critical and state-of-the-art power plant, respectively. The removal of CO₂ is partially offset by increased GHG emissions in up- and downstream processes, to a small extent (0.7 g/kWh) caused by the CCS infrastructure. An environmental co-benefit is expected following from the deeper reduction of hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride emissions. Most notable environmental trade-offs are the increase in human toxicity, ozone layer depletion and fresh water ecotoxicity potential for which the CCS chain is outperformed by both other chains. The state-of-the-art power plant without CCS also shows a better score for the eutrophication, acidification and photochemical oxidation potential despite the deeper reduction of SO_x and NO_x in the CCS power plant. These reductions are offset by increased emissions in the life cycle due to the energy penalty and a factor five increase in NH₃ emissions.     

A project-based system for including farmers in the EU ETS

Farmers in the EU do not trade greenhouse gases under the Kyoto agreement. This is an empirical puzzle because agriculture is a significant contributor of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the EU and may harvest private net gains from trade. Furthermore, the US has strongly advocated land-use practices as 'the missing link' in past climate negotiations. We argue that farmers have relatively low marginal reduction costs and that consequences in terms of the effect on permit price and technology are overall positive in the EU Emission Trading System (ETS). Thus, we propose a project-based system for including the farming practices in the EU ETS that reduces the uncertainty from measuring emission reduction in this sector. The system encourages GHG reduction either by introducing a new and less polluting practice or by reducing the polluting activity. When doing so, farmers will receive GHG permits corresponding to the amount of reduction which can be stored for later use or sold in the EU ETS.     

PLANNITG INDIANA'S WATER INFRASTRUCTURE FROM A COMPETITIVE PERSPECTIVE1

ABSTRACT: Indiana has embarked on a program to assess the condition of its infrastructure and to plan for its future. The perspective of this planning differs from the traditional “master plan” approach — instead, the focus is on competitiveness for economic development. The initial work on the water and sewerage competitiveness of the infrastructure includes: (1) a comparative analysis of the water resources and infrastructure of Indiana and its industrial midwestern neighbors; (2) a technology scan to identify possible technological opportunities that may be important for Indiana; and (3) a set of recommendations for future planning. This work is preliminary in nature but should serve as a starting point for continued strategic planning over the next decade for positioning of Indiana's water and sewerage infrastructure as a key element in the economic growth equation.     

Community energy plans in Canadian cities: success and barriers in implementation

Climate change and sustainable development concerns have motivated some municipalities in Canada to develop community energy plans, which focus on energy needs at the local level for the development of efficient, economical and environmental energy systems. Five Canadian cities that were early adopters of community energy planning principles were studied to assess whether implementation has occurred and what barriers have been experienced. The cities achieved success in the implementation of energy management in municipal operations despite barriers in jurisdiction, perception of cost, communication and capacity, but energy management in the community had not been fully implemented and long-term changes were not prevalent. While reductions were made in the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced by municipal operations, the community's overall GHG emissions were not significantly reduced. Long-term impacts on a city's function and growth will be key if community energy planning is to significantly impact community-wide GHG emissions and energy use.     

加拿大油气系统温室气体逃逸排放清单简述

油气系统温室气体逃逸排放是温室气体排放清单的重要组成部分。加拿大在清单中统一考虑了油气系统可能存在的温室气体排放源,因此清单中不仅包括了温室气体的逃逸排放(泄漏、排空),还考虑了能源燃烧中的气体排放,所考虑的温室气体种类既包括甲烷,也包括二氧化碳。采用的是政府间气候变化专门委员会(IPCC)第三层次方法(Tier3),即设备清单法、操作时间法和活动水平法三种计算方法,详细地将排放源分类进行估算。该国对数据的管理、质量控制和质量评估、不确定性分析以及在如何保证数据的持续性方面的作法都值得我们学习和借鉴。     

基于产业链分析的长三角地区CO2与大气污染物排放研究

长三角地区作为我国大气污染较为严重区域之一,如何在保持经济增长的同时减少CO₂与大气污染物的排放已成为一个重要挑战。本研究基于2007年与2012年长三角区域间投入产出表,定量分析了长三角地区省市间贸易引致的二氧化碳和大气污染物排放转移特征和变化趋势。同时,运用产业关联系数法,从前向关联与后向关联双重视角分析了长三角地区减缓CO₂和大气污染物排放的关键行业。研究结果表明,长三角的SO₂、PM_2.5排放总量表现为消费端大于生产端,CO₂、NO_x排放总量表现为生产端大于消费端。安徽省总体呈现为长三角地区贸易的SO₂、NO_x与PM_2.5排放净调出地,而上海与浙江表现为多数污染物排放净调入地。CO₂与大气污染物协同前向减排的关键行业为江苏省、浙江省和安徽省的电力、热力的生产和供应业,安徽省的煤炭开采和洗选业等,可以通过生产端技术革新和能源结构优化来促进减排;CO₂与大气污染物后向协同减排的关键行业为江苏省、浙江省和安徽省的建筑业等,对于这些行业,调整消费结构是有效的减排措施。为更好地制定长三角地区减排与污染防治政策,应当综合考虑行业减排、协同减排等,以确保经济持续增长的同时达到减排目标。     

Estimation of annual CH4 and N2O emissions from fluidised bed combustion: An advanced measurement-based method and its application to Finland

The aim of this study was to develop and apply an advanced, measurement based method for the estimation of annual CH₄ and N₂O emissions and thus gain improved understanding on the actual greenhouse gas (GHG) balances of combustion of fossil fuels, peat, biofuels and REF. CH₄ and N₂O emissions depend strongly on combustion conditions, and therefore the emission factors used in the calculation of annual emissions contain significant uncertainties. Fluidised bed combustion (FBC) has many good properties for combustion of different types of fuels and fuels of varying quality, e.g., biofuels and wastes. Therefore, it is currently increasing its market share. In this study, long term measurements (up to 50 days) were carried out at seven FBC boilers representing different size classes, loadings and fuel mixes. Both decreasing load and increasing share of coal in fuel mix increased N₂O emissions. Measurement results from different loading levels were combined with the common loading curves of similar plants in Finland to estimate annual emissions. Based on the results, recommendations for emission factors for the Finnish GHG emission inventory are given. The role of FBC as a potential technology for the utilisation of biofuels and wastes with future GHG reduction requirements is discussed.     

A reappraisal of WRI's estimates of greenhouse gas emissions

Excessive emissions of certain trace gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, carbon monoxide and chlorofluorocarbons are likely to result in global warming due to increased concentration of these greenhouse gases (GHGs). Therefore, measures to control GHG emissions are essential and the current international debate is on how to arrive at optimal GHG limitation strategies. To set emission targets or to distribute the burden of costs of various control measures, it is necessary to identify the major emitters. The World Resources Institute has assessed countrywide contributions to global GHG emissions for 1987. This paper disagrees with the basic approach adopted by WRI because it fails to apportion sinks on a logical basis by keeping in mind equity considerations; it does not account for the residence time of different GHGs; and it uses unreliable and outdated data for estimating the emissions. Using recent and reliable data for India and Brazil as well as the IPCC global warming potential for various GHGs, the shares in global emissions have been recalculated. The paper concludes that if only current emissions are considered there is considerable bias against those countries which are latecomers to the process of industrialization.     

气田放空天然气减排技术探讨

随着低碳发展理念的不断深入,放空天然气带来的资源浪费与温室气体排放问题日益成为气田节能减排的关注重点之一。文章结合气田放空天然气排放特点,着重探讨国内外回收利用现状,在分析西南油气田减排技术需求的基础上提出适宜的减排技术建议,包括：开发井口放空气撬装式回收装置,开展增压机放空天然气减排技术研究,开展火炬气减排技术研究。通过对此类技术群的继续开发与应用,为气田下一步减排行动提供技术参考。     

Alternative energy balances for Bulgaria to mitigate climate change

Alternative energy balances aimed to mitigate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are developed as alternatives to the baseline energy balance. The section of mitigation options is based on the results of the GHG emission inventory for the 1987–1992 period. The energy sector is the main contributor to the total CO₂ emissions of Bulgaria. Stationary combustion for heat and electricity production as well as direct end-use combustion amounts to 80% of the total emissions. The parts of the energy network that could have the biggest influence on GHG emission reduction are identified. The potential effects of the following mitigation measures are discussed: rehabilitation of the combustion facilities currently in operation; repowering to natural gas; reduction of losses in thermal and electrical transmission and distribution networks; penetration of new combustion technologies; tariff structure improvement; renewable sources for electricity and heat production; wasteheat utilization; and supply of households with natural gas to substitute for electricity in space heating and cooking. The total available and the achievable potentials are estimated and the implementation barriers are discussed.