Experimental studies of ignition and explosions in cyclohexane liquid under oxygen oxidation conditions

The safe operation of hydrocarbon liquid-phase oxidation by air or oxygen requires the knowledge on the flammability of hydrocarbon/oxygen mixtures in both the vapor space and vapor bubbles. The latter is of particular importance in situation where pure oxygen is used as the oxidant as most bubbles are expected to be flammable and explosive. New experimental findings are presented for ignition and explosion in cyclohexane liquid under oxygen oxidation conditions. A bubble column is constructed and fitted with multiple igniters. Experiments were performed at liquid temperatures between 373.15 and 423.15 K under various flow rates of pure oxygen. Two drastic different ignition and explosion behaviors were observed. The first is a typical bubble explosion from the direct ignition of the flammable bubbles in the liquid. The explosion occurs immediate following the ignition and do not produce significant energy that endanger the system. The other is a remote, delayed ignition and explosion in the vapor space that can produce significant overpressure and endanger the system. The explosion is attributed to the ignition of flammable vapor space by active free radicals from cyclohexyl hydroperoxide decomposition. A mechanism is proposed for the remote, delayed ignition to occur in the oxidation system. It is concluded that explosion in an oxidizing, bubbly liquid is not only a likely scenario but also a severe scenario, and cyclohexane oxidation should not be carried out directly with pure oxygen and without any inerting.     

燃料空气炸药一次引爆爆炸效应实验研究

为了提高燃料空气炸药（FAE）爆炸威力,设计制备了不同相态的FAE,并采用光测和电测方法,开展了开放空间下FAE一次引爆对比实验研究。结果表明:固态、液固混合及液态FAE被一次引爆后,均存在引爆中心装药、抛撒燃料、点火和爆炸4个阶段,云雾存续时间均长于等质量TNT装药的相应值,随着距离增加,固态FAE爆炸场超压变化规律为“减少-增加-减少”,其值高于等质量TNT装药的相应值;液态、液固混合FAE爆炸场超压变化规律为“增加-减少”,远场超压高于等质量TNT装药的相应值。     

建构筑物周边爆破施工安全控制距离及分析方法研究

为研究在居民区附近开展大面积爆破施工的安全可行性以及安全控制距离标准,采用数值模拟方法,分析了地铁车辆段爆破施工对周边高压线及居民楼的影响,根据分析结果,给出了安全控制距离及关键控制指标,说明采用数值模拟的方法适用于类似工况的可行性。另外,研究发现,在居民楼附近进行地铁车辆段爆破施工风险较高,建议在距建构筑物100 m范围内采用静态爆破或机械开挖的方式进行施工。     

Study of the explosion parameters of vapor–liquid diethyl ether/air mixtures

The knowledge of the vapor–liquid two-phase diethyl ether (DEE)/air mixtures (mist) on the explosion parameters was an important basis of accident prevention. Two sets of vapor–liquid two-phase DEE/air mixtures of various concentrations were obtained with Sauter mean diameters of 12.89 and 22.90 μm. Experiments were conducted on vapor–liquid two-phase DEE/air mixtures of various concentrations at an ignition energy of 40.32 J and at an initial room temperature and pressure of 21 °C and 0.10 MPa, respectively. The effects of the concentration and particle size of DEE on the explosion pressure, the explosion temperature, and the lower and upper flammability limits were analyzed. Finally, a series of experiments was conducted on vapor–liquid two-phase DEE/air mixtures of various concentrations at various ignition energies. The minimum ignition energies were determined, and the results were discussed. The results were also compared against our previous work on the explosion characteristics of vapor–liquid two-phase n-hexane/air mixtures.     

硝基苯精馏再沸器爆炸事故机理研究

笔者借助实验方法,对硝基苯精馏再沸器爆炸事故机理进行探讨。研究了再沸器中焦化物和焦油这两种主要介质的热爆炸敏感性,认为焦化物的热爆炸敏感性远远超过焦油;通过研究工艺过程,得出爆炸性焦化物是由液面的频繁波动、加热控制错误及可爆物含量升高等原因引起的,过程中可能存在的爆炸触发能量种类主要为氧化热、分解热或者摩擦、撞击能;进一步分析得出了再沸器爆炸事故的机理及爆炸事故的发展过程,认为在触发能作用下,首先是干燥的裸露焦化物被引爆,其产生的爆炸冲击能量可能进一步触发部分焦油,导致二次爆炸;最后根据分析得出的爆炸物形成原因及引爆能出现的条件提出了相应的安全对策措施。     

Effect of ignition delay on explosion parameters of corn dust/air in confined chamber

This paper presents the explosion parameters of corn dust/air mixtures in confined chamber. The measurements were conducted in a setup which comprises a 5 L explosion chamber, a dust dispersion sub-system, and a transient pressure measurement sub-system. The influences of the ignition delay on the pressure and the rate of pressure rise for the dust/air explosion have been discussed based on the experimental data. It is found that at the lower concentrations, the explosion pressure and the rate of pressure rise of corn dust/air mixtures decrease as the ignition delay increases from 60 ms; But at the higher concentrations, the explosion pressure and the rate of pressure rise increase slightly as the ignition delay increases from 60 ms to 80 ms, and decrease beyond 80 ms. The maximum explosion pressure of corn dust/air mixtures reaches its highest value equal to 0.79 MPa at the concentration of 1000 gm⁻³.     

基于20 L球罐的多相混合物扩散模拟

为更好地探索多相混合物的爆炸特性，以铝粉、乙醚、空气为研究对象，基于20 L球型爆炸罐建立三维计算模型，对气固两相和气液固三相混合物的分散过程进行数值模拟，以分析不同多相混合物分散过程的差异，并为测量多相混合物爆炸下限时的点火延迟时间设定提供参考。监测分析铝粉浓度粒子分布、流场内部湍流动能以及液相体积百分数等的演化过程，讨论混合物分散效果的差异，并确定测量爆炸下限的点火延迟时间。研究结果表明:实验工况下，液相的存在会降低粉尘云团的湍流动能、降低其扩散速度，并使粉尘云内部浓度更均匀。测量多相混合物爆炸下限时，三相混合物的最佳点火延迟时间早于气固两相混合物10~20 ms。     

Ignitability characteristics of aluminium and magnesium dusts that are generated during the shredding of post-consumer wastes

The authors investigated the ignitability of aluminium and magnesium dusts that are generated during the shredding of post-consumer waste. The relations between particle size and the minimum explosive concentration, the minimum ignition energy, the ignition temperature of the dust clouds, etc. the relation between of oxygen concentration and dust explosion, the effect of inert substances on dust explosion, etc. were studied experimentally.

The minimum explosive concentration increased exponentially with particle size. The minimum explosive concentrations of the sample dusts were about 170 g/m³ (aluminium: 0–8 μm) and 90 g/m³ (magnesium: 0–20 μm). The minimum ignition energy tended to increase with particle size. It was about 6 mJ for the aluminium samples and 4 mJ for the magnesium samples. The ignition temperature of dust clouds was about 750 °C for aluminium and about 520 °C for magnesium. The lowest concentrations of oxygen to produce a dust explosion were about 10% for aluminium and about 8% for magnesium. A large mixing ratio (more than about 50%) of calcium oxide or calcium carbonate was necessary to decrease the explosibility of magnesium dust. The experimental data obtained in the present investigation will be useful for evaluating the explosibility of aluminium and magnesium dusts generated in metal recycling operations and thus for enhancing the safety of recycling plants.     

20L近球形容器中甲醇喷雾液滴爆炸特性实验研究*

为了评估易燃液体喷雾的爆炸风险,借助喷雾粒度仪、高速相机以及喷雾爆炸实验系统,围绕2种粒径(表面积平均粒径:2.0 μm±0.5 μm;18.0 μm±0.5 μm)的甲醇喷雾,研究点火位置和延迟时间等因素对甲醇喷雾爆炸特性的影响。结果表明:甲醇喷雾粒径均随环境温度的增加而减小,当甲醇喷雾浓度较大时,环境温度对于甲醇喷雾粒径的影响更为显著;甲醇物料温度的改变对于其粒径的影响很小。随着点火延迟时间的增大,甲醇喷雾爆炸特性参数均呈现先增加后减小的趋势,在τ=120 ms时最大。受限空间内甲醇喷雾采用中心或上部点火方式,当甲醇喷雾浓度为356.4 g/m3(φ=1.8)时,甲醇喷雾爆炸特性参数均取得最大值;与上部位置点火相比,中心位置点火的甲醇喷雾爆炸特性参数值较大。     

Minimum ignition temperatures and explosion characteristics of micron-sized aluminium powder

To forestall, control, and mitigate the detrimental effects of aluminium dust, a 20-L near-spherical dust explosion experimental system and an HY16429 type dust-cloud ignition temperature test device were employed to explore the explosion characteristics of micron-sized aluminium powder under different ignition energies, dust particle sizes, and dust cloud concentration (C_dust) values; the minimum ignition temperature (MIT) values of aluminium powder under different dust particle sizes and C_dust were also examined. Flame images at different times were photographed by a high-speed camera. Results revealed that under similar dust-cloud concentrations and with dust particle size increasing from 42.89 to 141.70 μm, the MIT of aluminium powder increased. Under various C_dust values, the MIT of aluminium dust clouds attained peak value when concentrations enhanced. Furthermore, the increase of ignition energy contributed to the increase of the explosion pressure (P_ex) and the rate of explosion pressure rise [(dP/dt)_ex]. When dust particle size was augmented gradually, the P_ex and (dP/dt)_ex attenuated. Decreasing particle size lowered both the most violent explosion concentration and explosive limits.     

Dust explosion risk moderation for flocculent dusts

The research presented in this paper is focused on dust explosions of coarse and fine flocculent (or fibrous) samples of wood and polyethylene. Hybrid mixtures of fibrous polyethylene and admixed ethylene were also studied. Experimentation was conducted by following standardized test procedures and using standardized apparatus for determination of maximum explosion pressure, size-normalized maximum rate of pressure rise, minimum explosible concentration, minimum ignition energy, and minimum ignition temperature. A general trend was observed of enhanced explosion likelihood and consequence severity with a decrease in material diameter, as well as enhanced consequence severity with admixture of a flammable gas to the combustion atmosphere. The same phenomena are well-established for dusts composed of spherical particles; this highlights the importance of inherently safer design and the principle of moderation in avoiding the generation of fine sizes of flocculent dusts and hybrid mixtures of such materials with flammable gases.In addition to presenting experimental findings, the paper describes phenomenological modelling efforts for the flocculent polyethylene using four geometric equivalence models: radial equivalence, volumetric equivalence, surface area equivalence, and specific surface area equivalence. The surface area equivalence model was found to yield the best estimates of maximum rate of pressure rise for the flocculent polyethylene samples investigated experimentally.     

Experimental studies on the ignition behavior of pure silane released into air

Silane is a well known pyrophoric gas which normally ignites upon contact with air. However, a silane release from a pressure source may not always lead to prompt ignition and frequently the ignition occurs when the release is shutoff. In a confined space, significant quantities of silane can accumulate prior to autoignition leading to an explosion, causing significant damage. To date, the mechanism and condition of pure silane ignition upon release into air has not been completely explained. Thus there is a need for additional experimental investigations covering a wide range of release conditions to enable a full understanding of silane ignition and explosion characteristics.This work presents a series of tests that aims to uncover the precise condition for pure silane ignition upon release into air. Tests were performed for releases at controlled and steady velocities. Steady flow of silane to a burn box and nitrogen to the desired vent stub are first established through mass flow controllers. An electrically controlled four-way switching valve is used to switch the silane and nitrogen flow such that steady silane flow without acceleration to the vent stub can be established. With careful control of vent conditions, we are able to find a reproducible critical exit velocity for prompt ignition of steady silane releases for different vent diameters. If the releases are reduced to below the critical exit velocity, prompt ignition of silane release is ensured. Above this critical exit velocity, silane can be released indefinitely into air without any ignition. The critical exit velocity is found to vary with the vent diameter. This relationship between the critical exit velocity and the vent diameter suggests that the silane release without prompt ignition was most likely caused by quench of the reactive kernel from the scalar dissipation between the release gas and the ambient air. Analysis of locations where prompt ignition occurred from the clips from high speed video camera found that the most reactive ignition kernel occurs in the range when the ratio of volumetric flow rate of entrained air to the silane flow reaches 0.322 ± 0.076, which is equivalent to the most reactive silane concentration of 75.6% in air. The implications from these results are discussed with emphasis on the safety of silane supply systems and operation practices.     

可燃制冷剂空调用开关元件点燃危险及防爆试验分析

随着全球范围对环境问题的日益重视,R290,R32等新型制冷剂因优良的环保性能和节能效果被广泛应用于空调行业,但其属于IIA级爆炸性气体,为了进一步分析其运行过程中的防爆安全性能。通过文献数据和测试分析,可燃制冷剂空调电气元件的点燃源主要来自其工作过程中产生的电气火花。其中空调开关元件最容易产生电火花、电弧,且通过试验验证这些火花或电弧能点爆（6.5±0.5）%乙烯/空气混合物。综合IEC 60335-2-40,GB 4706.32标准要求和空调开关元件的结构特征,分析确定其应符合“nC”型防爆技术要求,并能通过“nC”型爆炸试验。针对开关元件结构尺寸小、存在爆炸试验中爆炸性混合气体多次置换和负载通、断电操作的难点问题,提出一套合理可行的爆炸试验实施方案,并通过测试应用得到验证。     

试论空分装置的防爆技术

空分装置的安全运行是工业制氧安全生产的关键环节 ,也是最难控制的危险源。本文从空分爆炸原理入手 ,系统阐述了碳氢化合物在液氧中的积聚机理 ,激发能源的种类与形成 ,并提出了综合控制空分爆炸的若干措施     

Propagation of ethylene–air flames in closed cylindrical vessels with asymmetrical ignition

A study of explosions in several elongated cylindrical vessels with length to diameter L/D = 2.4–20.7 and ignition at vessel's bottom is reported. Ethylene–air mixtures with variable concentration between 3.0 and 10.0 vol% and pressures between 0.30 and 1.80 bara were experimentally investigated at ambient initial temperature. For the whole range of ethylene concentration, several characteristic stages of flame propagation were observed. The height and rate of pressure rise in these stages were found to depend on ethylene concentration, on volume and asymmetry ratio L/D of each vessel. High rates of pressure rise were found in the early stage; in later stages lower rates of pressure rise were observed due to the increase of heat losses. The peak explosion pressures and the maximum rates of pressure rise differ strongly from those measured in centrally ignited explosions, in all examined vessels. In elongated vessels, smooth p(t) records have been obtained for the explosions of lean C₂H₄–air mixtures. In stoichiometric and rich mixtures, pressure oscillations appear even at initial pressures below ambient, resulting in significant overpressures as compared to compact vessels. In the stoichiometric mixture, the frequency of the oscillations was close to the fundamental characteristic frequency of the tube.     

火灾中摩擦火花和热表面引燃能力的研究

用摄影和热点偶等方法在一个有磨削轮的容器中研究了机械摩擦火花和热表面的引燃能力。在本研究中发现,对于某些材料,如碳钢等,由摩擦产生的磨屑可以被周围空气中的氧氧化而放出大量的热,从而使屑粒温度升高,达到白热程度。通常我们把一簇这样的颗粒中做“摩擦火花”。     

Influence of the oxide content on the ignition energies of aluminium powders

Some results of determination of ignition energies for an aluminium powder with various oxide contents are presented. Common use of processes like high-speed cutting produce explosive dust clouds, so that we focused this study on hazard of metallic powders. An industrial aluminium powder has been used for this work. An original process, based on the principle of electrochemical anodisation, has been developed to increase, under control, the oxide coating of particles.

The sensitivity study to spark ignition was performed in an Hartmann explosion tube of 1.3L. The Langlie test method was applied to evaluate the energies leading to a probability of ignition of 50% (E₅₀) of the selected samples. The results confirm that the ignition energies increase with the oxide content of the powder.     

不同实验标准对几种常见阻燃剂粉尘可爆性影响研究

为研究阻燃剂粉尘可爆性，依据不同实验标准所采用的哈特曼管和20 L球爆炸实验系统，对几种常见阻燃剂粉尘可爆性进行了初步研究。结果表明:按不同标准实验，四溴双酚A、三聚氰胺、二乙基次膦酸铝、赤磷和对二丁基氧化锡均为可爆性粉尘；三氧化二锑、钛白粉、碳酸钙、氢氧化铝和二氧化硅均为不可爆性粉尘；氰尿酸三聚氰胺、球形硅树脂粉以及膨胀石墨的粉尘可爆性结果不一致。对于某些阻燃剂，点火源的起始能量对粉尘可爆性结果有较大影响；某些阻燃剂对爆炸具有抑制效应，抑制程度同物质本身的性质和浓度有关系。     

Hot surfaces generated by sliding metal contacts and their effectiveness as an ignition source

Frictional processes caused by malfunctions may lead to hot surfaces and mechanical sparks. Whenever mechanical sparks occur due to friction, there are also hot surfaces. The time until the ignition source becomes effective is largely dependent on the thermal conductivity of the friction partners. Based on this, it was examined whether classification into the explosion groups and temperature classes of IEC 60079-0 is possible and useful. This research therefore focuses on the development of hot surfaces and their effectiveness. To assess the formation of hot surfaces, tests for temperature development according to the applied power density and the different materials were performed in a friction apparatus. The experimental setup is realised via a friction pin which is pressed onto a rotating friction disc. The variation of the power density was carried out by changing the velocity and load per area. The temperature distribution was detected by thermocouples, two pyrometers and an infrared camera. For the investigation of the incendivity of hot surfaces, the ignition curves were determined by characteristic reference gases and vapours of the IEC explosion groups and temperature classes. Tests have been carried out with hydrogen, ethylene, diethyl ether, propane and pentane. The experiments have shown that a larger thermal conductivity of the steel used can lead to slow down heating of the pin material. With an increasing wear rate the maximum temperature decreases. It was possible to determine the maximum temperatures at specific power inputs. The ignition tests show that ignitions are possible even at low velocities. The effective ignition source was thereby always the hot surface. The result was a graduation of the explosion limits analogous to the order of Maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) values. In contrast, no significant relationship between the ignition limits and the temperature class of the respective substances was revealed.     

自由空间粉尘云雾爆炸压力场分析

本文旨在研究固体粉尘在自由空间中爆炸压力场的分布。进行了复合粉尘燃料和液体燃料环氧丙烷的爆炸实验,利用压力传感器和高速摄影,获得了在自由空间中的压力实测数据,并对数据进行了详细地分析处理,得到了典型的超压曲线以及高速摄影图片。研究表明：粉尘云雾爆炸的超压峰值较大,在云雾区内压力存在相对低压区,超压持续时间远比液体环氧丙烷长。