Emissions of VOCs at Urban Petrol Retail Distribution Centres in India (Delhi and Mumbai)

Air pollution has assumed gigantic proportion killing almost half a million Asians every year. Urban pollution mainly comprises of emissions from buses, trucks, motorcycle other forms of motorized transport and its supporting activities. As Asia's cities continue to expand the number of vehicles have risen resulting in greater pollution. Fugitive emissions from retail distribution center in urban area constitute a major source. Petrol vapours escape during refueling adding pollutants like benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene to ambient air. This paper discusses a study on fugitive emissions of Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC) at some refueling station in two metropolitan cities of India, i.e., Mumbai and Delhi. Concentration of VOCs in ambient air at petrol retail distribution center is estimated by using TO-17 method. Concentration of benzene in ambient air in Delhi clearly shows the effect of intervention in use of petroleum and diesel fuel and shift to CNG. Chemical Mass Balance (CMB) model is used to estimate source contributions. At Delhi besides diesel combustion engines, refueling emissions are also major sources. At Mumbai evaporative emissions are found to contribute maximum to Total VOC (TVOC) concentration in ambient air.     

Measurement and Interpretation of Concentrations of Urban Atmospheric Organic Compounds

The presence of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from traffic and other sources in urban areas is a cause for concern about public health. Canister, chemical derivatisation, particulate sampling and adsorption sampling techniques were used to measure VOC concentrations of a wide range of compounds (C6-C40) during a four day campaign in south London with subsequent laboratory analysis of the samples. Compounds quantified included alkanes, mono- and poly-nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. Also the first sequential measurements of carbonyl compounds (C1-C8) in a UK urban area are presented. Results from canister and adsorption sampling methods are compared. A comparison of the results with other urban data is presented and the temporal variations in VOC concentrations were interpreted with reference to the prevalent wind speeds and directions. The CALINE4 line source dispersion model was generally successful in reproducing the daytime 12 hour average concentrations of selected VOCs.     

Distribution Of Volatile Organic Compounds In Ambient Air Of Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Automobile emissions have created a major hydrocarbon pollution problem in the ambient air of Taiwan. The aim of this study was to determine the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the ambient air of Kaohsiung, Taiwan. The spatial distribution, temporal variation, and correlations of VOCs at three study sites, selected based on traffic densities and distances from a freeway, were discussed. Sixty-four hydrocarbons were identified in the ambient air. Among all of the VOC species, acetone, aromatic and aliphatic compounds constituted the major constituents. Higher concentrations of VOCs existed further away from major arteries as compared to those found near the freeway. Therefore, the distance from the freeway may not be a sufficient index for reflecting actual air quality in the study area. Weather conditions, wind speed and direction did not affect the distribution of VOC concentrations in the three study sites. Other factors, such as the height and density of buildings, traffic conditions or commercial activities, might affect the distribution of VOCs.     

A catalogue of urban hydrocarbons for the city of Leeds: atmospheric monitoring of volatile organic compounds by thermal desorption-gas chromatography

A method has been developed for the speciation and quantitative determination of hydrocarbons in urban air in the city of Leeds. Hydrocarbons were pre-concentrated by adsorbent tube air sampling and analyzed using thermal desorption and gas chromatography with flame ionization detection and structural confirmation by mass spectrometric detection. While automated volatile organic compound (VOC) analyzers produced data for a maximum of about 30 compounds simultaneously, with the method described here, a total of 68 C6-C12 hydrocarbons were measured simultaneously in one analysis at parts per billion (ppb) levels. Several monitoring surveys were performed, one during the winter of 1993 and the other in the summer of 1994, at a number of sites to investigate the levels of VOCs identified in the urban air of Leeds.     

Measurements of biogenic hydrocarbons and carbonyl compounds emitted by trees from temperate warm Atlantic rainforest, Brazil

This study is part of a three-year project on biogenic volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from trees of the temperate warm Atlantic rainforest found in the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo City (MASP). No study of VOC emission rates from plant species has been carried out in the temperate warm Atlantic rainforest of Brazil prior to this work. Eleven species were selected (Alchornea sidifolia, Cupania oblongifolia, Cecropia pachystachia, Syagrus romanzoffiana, Casearia sylvestris, Machaerium villosum, Trema micrantha, Croton floribundus, Myrcia rostrata, Solanum erianthum and Ficus insipida) and some of them were studied in urban, sub-urban and forest areas inside the MASP in order to evaluate biogenic VOC composition at sites characterized by different emission sources. Biogenic VOC emissions were determined by placing branches of plants in a dynamic enclosure system, an all-Teflon cuvette, and by sampling the compounds in the air leaving the cuvette. Pre-concentration using adsorbents to retain the VOC, followed by GC-MS after thermal desorption of the sample, was employed to determine the amount of biogenic hydrocarbons. The collection of carbonyl compounds on a 2,4-dinitrophenylhydrazine coated silica followed by HPLC-UV was used to analyze low molecular weight carbonyl compounds. Emission rates of isoprene, alpha-pinene, camphene and limonene ranged from 0.01 to 2.16 microg C h(-1) g(-1) and emission rates of aldehydes (C(2)-C(6)), acrolein, methacrolein and 2-butanone ranged from 1.5 x 10(-2) to 2.3 micro g C h(-1) g (-1). Ambient and leaf temperatures, relative humidity, light intensity, O(3) and NO(x) levels in the local atmosphere were monitored during experiments. It was possible to identify different biogenic VOCs emitted from typical plants of temperate warm Atlantic rainforest. The emission rates were reported as a function of the type of site investigated and were only provided for compounds for which quantification was feasible. Other biogenic compounds were only identified.     

Characterization of PM10-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air of Spanish urban and rural areas

Urban areas constitute major pollution sources due to anthropogenic activities located in these areas. Among the legislated air pollutants, the particulate matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than or equal to 10 microns (PM10) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are controlled under Directive 2008/50/EC and Directive 2004/107/EC, respectively due to their adverse health effects. A study was carried out at four urban and rural Spanish areas during the warm and cold seasons in 2008-2009 to quantify 19 PAH associated with the atmospheric PM10 by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry detection (GC-MS-MS) with the internal standard method. The particle-bound composition of the analysed PAH was 5 and 10 times greater in industrial and urban areas, respectively when compared to those measured in rural areas. The highest PAH concentrations during the cold period were possibly due to the additional contribution of domestic heating sources and meteorological conditions such as low temperature and solar irradiation. The use of molecular diagnostic ratios indicated that the possible, major PAH pollution sources in the most polluted areas were pyrogenic sources, mainly attributed to petroleum combustion sources (motor vehicle emissions and crude oil combustion). Petrogenic sources related to evaporative emissions also seemed to contribute in the most polluted area during the warm period. Those dates with high carcinogenic character according to the benzo(a)pyrene equivalent (BaP-eq) were also possibly attributed to petroleum combustion sources.     

Influence of processing parameters on VOC emission from particleboards

Volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from furnishings have created a major indoor air pollution problem in China. The aim of this study was to investigate the VOC emission of larch particleboard under different processing conditions. VOCs collection chamber, parts per billion VOC monitor, and gas chromatography–mass spectrometer were used to analyze the VOC components and quantities. The results were shown as follows: (1) concentration and emission rate of VOCs were significantly affected by hot-pressing temperature and time. With the increase of hot-pressing temperature and time, both the earlier emission concentration and the amount of total volatile organic compounds increased. (2) The composition of VOCs was also influenced by temperature and time, especially the variety of terpene, benzene, and derivative. The existence and quantities of esters were still the main components of VOCs emissions.     

大连市秋冬季环境空气中VOCs特征及臭氧生成潜势分析

对大连市2015年秋冬季环境空气中VOCs进行采样分析,获得其组成、含量、昼夜和季节变化规律,分析不同类别VOCs的来源,并计算不同VOCs物种的臭氧生成潜势（OFP）。结果表明：大连市环境空气中秋季VOCs平均体积浓度（55.81×10^-9）略高于冬季（42.66×10^-9）;秋季VOCs以羰基化合物和烷烃为主,而冬季VOCs以烷烃和烯炔烃为主。大连环境空气中光化学反应的主要VOCs类别为羰基化合物、烯炔烃和芳香烃,主要物种为丙烷、乙烷、正丁烷和乙烯。羰基化合物含量高与机动车尾气及医院大量试剂的使用有关,烷烃主要来源于汽油车与液化石油气（LPG）燃烧排放,芳香烃主要由机动车排放贡献。各类别VOCs的组分含量与其OFP并不一致,大连市环境空气中各类VOCs的OFP由高到低依次为羰基化合物>芳香烃>烯炔烃>烷烃。     

Characterizations of volatile organic compounds during high ozone episodes in Beijing,China

Air samples were collected in Beijing from June through August 2008, and concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in those samples are here discussed. This sampling was performed to increase understanding of the distributions of their compositions, illustrate the overall characteristics of different classes of VOCs, assess the ages of air masses, and apportion sources of VOCs using principal compound analysis/absolute principal component scores (PCA/APCS). During the sampling periods, the relative abundance of the four classes of VOCs as determined by the concentration-based method was different from that determined by the reactivity approach. Alkanes were found to be most abundant (44.3–50.1%) by the concentration-based method, but aromatic compounds were most abundant (38.2–44.5%) by the reactivity approach. Aromatics and alkenes contributed most (73–84%) to the ozone formation potential. Toluene was the most abundant compound (11.8–12.7%) during every sampling period. When the maximum incremental reactivity approach was used, propene, toluene, m,p-xylene, 1-butene, and 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene were the five most abundant compounds during two sampling periods. X/B, T/B, and E/B ratios in this study were lower than those found in other cities, possibly due to the aging of the air mass at this site. Four components were extracted from application of PCA to the data. It was found that the contribution of vehicle exhaust to total VOCs accounted for 53% of VOCs, while emissions due to the solvent use contributed 33% of the total VOCs. Industrial sources contributed 3% and biogenic sources contributed 11%. The results showed that vehicle exhausts (i.e., unburned vehicle emissions + vehicle internal engine combustion) were dominant in VOC emissions during the experimental period. The solvent use made the second most significant contribution to ambient VOCs.     

VOCs走航观测在城市污染源排查中的应用

为推进城市空气质量精细化管理工作的实施,实现VOCs污染源精准排查,2019年3-4月,利用单光子电离飞行时间质谱对青岛市重点区域进行了VOCs走航观测。在排查到的污染源中,工业区的VOCs浓度较生活区整体偏高,且生活区、工业区夜间的VOCs浓度均较白天高。VOCs各类组分中,生活区白天苯系物、卤代烃、烯烃、烷烃的占比均在20%左右,夜间苯系物占比明显升高;工业区苯系物在白天和夜间的占比均最高,其他组分相对较小。浓度较高的前10位VOCs物种中,生活区白天烯烃物种占主导,夜间烷烃物种的比重明显增加;工业区苯系物、烯烃物种在白天和夜间的比重均较大,烷烃物种较小。生活区VOCs的污染源主要为机动车尾气排放和油品挥发,工业区主要为企业排放。烯烃和苯系物臭氧生成贡献较烷烃高,特别是丁烯、戊烯、己烯、甲苯、二甲苯/乙苯、三甲苯贡献显著,建议作为优控物种重点管控。     

Investigation and assessment of volatile organic compounds in water sources in China

456 water samples collected from 152 water sources in 2006 were analyzed for 21 volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Concentrations of 21 VOCs ranged from below method detection limits of the laboratory to 7.65 ??g/L (toluene), but seldom exceeded the concentration limits set in the National Drinking Water Quality Standards (GB5749-2006) or the National Environmental Quality Standards for Surface Water (GB3838-2002) of China. Of the 21 individual VOCs analyzed, 11 VOCs were detected in at least one sample at or above 1.0 ??g/L; 6.6% of the water samples had a detection of at least one VOC at or above 1.0 ??g/L, and 2.6% had a detection of at least two VOCs at or above 1.0 ??g/L. Based on the statistical data of detection frequencies above the method detection limits, 75% of the samples detected at least one VOC, and 65% of the samples detected at least two VOCs. Chloroform, toluene, and 1,2-dichloroethene were the three most frequently detected VOCs, with detection frequencies of 76.97%, 68.42%, and 44.08%, respectively. Volatile halogenated hydrocarbons and gasoline components were the two most frequently detected VOC groups.     

杭州市大气污染物排放清单及特征

以杭州市区为研究区域,通过调查整合多套污染源数据库及其他统计资料,研究文献报道及模型计算的各种污染源排放因子,获得杭州市区各行业PM10、PM2.5、SO2、NOx、CO、VOCs、NH3等污染物的排放量,建立了杭州市区2010年1 km×1 km大气污染物排放清单。结果表明,2010年杭州市区PM10、PM2.5、SO2、NOx、CO、VOCs和NH3的排放总量分别为7.96×104、4.02×104、7.23×104、8.98×104、73.90×104、39.56×104、3.32×104t。从排放源的行业分布来看,机动车尾气排放是杭州市区大气污染物最重要排放源之一,对PM10、PM2.5、NOx、CO和VOCs的贡献分别达到14.4%、27.1%、40.3%、21.4%、31.1%。道路扬尘、电厂锅炉、工业炉窑、植被、畜禽养殖对不同污染物分别有着重要贡献,道路扬尘对PM10和PM2.5的贡献分别为44.6%和20.0%、电厂锅炉对SO2和NOx的贡献分别为37.0%和25.7%、工业炉窑对CO的贡献为41.5%、植被排放对VOCs的贡献为27.1%、畜禽养殖对NH3的贡献为76.5%。从空间分布来看,萧山区和余杭区对SO2、NH3和植被排放BVOC的贡献要显著高于主城区;而主城区机动车对PM2.5、NOx和VOCs的贡献分别达到36.3%、56.0%和47.4%,较市区范围内显著增加,表明机动车尾气排放已成为杭州主城区大气污染最重要的来源之一。     

Organic Liquids Storage Tanks Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCS) Emissions Dispersion and Risk Assessment in Developing Countries: The Case of Dar-Es-Salaam City, Tanzania

The emission estimation of nine volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from eight organic liquids storage tanks companies in Dar-es-Salaam City Tanzania has been done by using US EPA standard regulatory storage tanks emission model (TANKS 4.9b). Total VOCs atmospheric emission has been established to be 853.20 metric tones/yr. It has been established further that petrol storage tanks contribute about 87% of total VOCs emitted, while tanks for other refined products and crude oil were emitting 10% and 3% of VOCs respectively. Of the eight sources (companies), the highest emission value from a single source was 233,222.94 kg/yr and the lowest single source emission value was 6881.87 kg/yr. The total VOCs emissions estimated for each of the eight sources were found to be higher than the standard level of 40,000 kg/yr per source for minor source according to US EPA except for two sources, which were emitting VOCs below the standard level. The annual emissions per single source for each of the VOCs were found to be below the US EPA emissions standard which is 2,000~kg/yr in all companies except the emission of hexane from company F1 which was slightly higher than the standard. The type of tanks used seems to significantly influence the emission rate. Vertical fixed roof tanks (VFRT) emit a lot more than externally floating roof tanks (EFRT) and internally floating roof tanks (IFRT). The use of IFRT and EFRT should be encouraged especially for storage of petrol which had highest atmospheric emission contribution. Model predicted atmospheric emissions are less than annual losses measured by companies in all the eight sources. It is possible that there are other routes for losses beside atmospheric emissions. It is therefore important that waste reduction efforts in these companies are directed not only to reducing atmospheric emissions, but also prevention of the spillage and leakage of stored liquid and curbing of the frequently reported illegal siphoning of stored products. Emission rates for benzene, toluene, and xylene were used as input to CALPUFF air dispersion model for the calculation of spatial downwind concentrations from area sources. By using global positioning system (GPS) and geographical information system (GIS) the spatial benzene concentration contributed by organic liquid storage tanks has been mapped for Dar-es-Salaam City. Highest concentrations for all the three toxic pollutants were observed at Kigamboni area, possibly because the area is located at the wind prevailing direction from the locations of the storage tanks. The model predicted concentrations downwind from the sources were below tolerable concentrations by WHO and US-OSHA. The highest 24 hrs averaging time benzene concentration was used for risk assessment in order to determine maximum carcinogenic risk amongst the population exposed at downwind. Established risk for adult and children at 2.9×10^-3 and 1.9×10^-3 respectively, are higher than the acceptable US-EPA risk of 1×10^-6. It is very likely that the actual VOCs concentrations in some urban areas in Tanzania including Dar-es-Salaam City are much higher than the levels reported in this study when other sources such as petrol stations and motor vehicles on the roads are considered. Tanzania Government therefore need to put in place: an air quality policy and legislation, establish air quality guidelines and acquire facilities which will enable the implementation of air quality monitoring and management programmes.     

Spatial Analysis of Volatile Organic Compounds from a Community-Based Air Toxics Monitoring Network in Deer Park,Texas, USA

In the summer of 2003, ambient air concentrations of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were measured at 12 sites within a 3-km radius in Deer Park, Texas near Houston. The purpose of the study was to assess local spatial influence of traffic and other urban sources and was part of a larger investigation of VOC spatial and temporal heterogeneity influences in selected areas of Houston. Seventy 2-h samples were collected using passive organic vapor monitors. Most measurements of 13 VOC species were greater than the method detection limits. Samplers were located at 10 residential sites, a regulatory air monitoring station, and a site located at the centroid of the census tract in which the regulatory station was located. For residential sites, sampler placement locations (e. g., covered porch vs. house eaves) had no effect on concentration with the exception of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE). Relatively high correlations (Pearson r > 0.8) were found between toluene, ethylbenzene, and o,m,p-xylenes suggesting petroleum-related influence. Chloroform was not correlated with these species or benzene (Pearson r < 0.35) suggesting a different source influence, possibly from process-related activities. As shown in other spatial studies, wind direction relative to source location had an effect on VOC concentrations.     

Indoor and outdoor concentrations of fine particles, particle-bound PAHs and volatile organic compounds in Kaunas, Lithuania

This complex study presents indoor and outdoor levels of air-borne fine particles, particle-bound PAHs and VOCs at two urban locations in the city of Kaunas, Lithuania, and considers possible sources of pollution. Two sampling campaigns were performed in January-February and March-April 2009. The mean outdoor PM(2.5) concentration at Location 1 in winter was 34.5 ± 15.2 μg m(-3) while in spring it was 24.7 ± 12.2 μg m(-3); at Location 2 the corresponding values were 36.7 ± 21.7 and 22.4 ± 19.4 μg m(-3), respectively. In general there was little difference between the PM concentrations at Locations 1 and 2. PM(2.5) concentrations were lower during the spring sampling campaign. These PM concentrations were similar to those in many other European cities; however, the levels of most PAHs analysed were notably higher. The mean sum PAH concentrations at Locations 1 and 2 in the winter campaign were 75.1 ± 32.7 and 32.7 ± 11.8 ng m(-3), respectively. These differences are greater than expected from the difference in traffic intensity at the two sites, suggesting that there is another significant source of PAH emissions at Location 1 in addition to the traffic. The low observed indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios indicate that PAH emissions at the locations studied arise primarily from outdoor sources. The buildings at both locations have old windows with wooden frames that are fairly permissive in terms of air circulation. VOC concentrations were mostly low and comparable to those reported from Sweden. The mean outdoor concentrations of VOC's were: 0.7 ± 0.2, 3.0 ± 0.8, 0.5 ± 0.2, 3.5 ± 0.3, and 0.2 ± 0.1 μg m(-3), for benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, sum of m-, p-, o-xylenes, and naphthalene, respectively. Higher concentrations of VOCs were observed during the winter campaign, possibly due to slower dispersion, slower chemical transformations and/or the lengthy "cold start" period required by vehicles in the wintertime. A trajectory analysis showed that air masses coming from Eastern Europe carried significantly higher levels of PM(2.5) compared to masses from other regions, but the PAHs within the PM(2.5) are of local origin. It has been suggested that street dust, widely used for winter sanding activities in Eastern and Central European countries, may act not only as a source of PM, but also as source of particle-bound PAHs. Other potential sources include vehicle exhaust, domestic heating and long-range transport.     

基于城市大气挥发性有机物特征分析的数据质量评估方法及案例

城市大气挥发性有机物(VOCs)监测是空气质量监测网的重要组成部分,而数据质量控制和质量保证是VOCs监测的基础。基于8次中国城市大气VOCs外场监测,通过挖掘VOCs浓度、组成和化学活性的内在规律,对VOCs监测数据质量进行评估并总结方法。分析结果显示:城市大气乙烷和苯等长寿命组分具有明显的背景浓度,且区域背景值较为接近,可以用来诊断长寿命VOCs组分浓度异常偏低或偏高现象。而示踪组分的季节(日)变化规律可以用来识别VOCs组分定性问题(如夏季大气异戊二烯和烷基硝酸酯浓度日变化规律应反映植被排放和光化学反应特征)。另外,在气团混合均匀的情况下,VOCs浓度波动与其活性之间存在负相关,这一规律可以用来核查数据准确性或局地源影响。     

南通市夏季VOCs污染特征与来源研究

运用大气挥发性有机物(VOCs)快速在线连续自动监测系统,于2018年7月对南通市区环境空气中VOCs进行观测,分析VOCs的浓度状况、组成特征、对臭氧生成潜势的贡献及主要来源。结果表明:观测期间共检出100种VOCs,总挥发性有机物(TVOCs)的平均体积分数为(38. 18±23. 63)×10^-9,各物种体积分数从大到小顺序依次为烷烃>含氧有机物>芳香烃>卤代烃>烯、炔烃;芳烃和烯烃是最主要的活性物种,间/对二甲苯、甲苯、邻二甲苯等是VOCs的关键活性组分;利用PMF模型解析得到VOCs的主要污染来源是工业排放与溶剂使用、机动车尾气排放、燃料挥发排放和生物源排放。     

室内空气有机污染的研究现状

主要讨论了室内空气中有机物污染的研究现状。重点介绍了室内空气中多环芳烃 (PAHs)、挥发性有机物(VOCs)、醛类化合物等的污染状况及来源。简要叙述了室内空气污染的影响因素及对人体的健康风险评价。     

The Emissions of Major Aromatic Voc as Landfill Gas from Urban Landfill Sites in Korea

In this study, concentrations of major aromatic VOCs were determined from landfill gas (LFG) at a total of five municipal landfill sites in Korea including Nan Ji (NJ), Woon Jung (WJ), Sam Poong (SP), Hoei Chun (HC), and No Hyung (NH). The concentration levels of those VOC were found to be significantly different, mainly as a function of such a parameter as landfill aging. The VOC concentrations measured from the unclosed landfill sites (e.g., WJ) were characterized by exceedingly high values above a few tens of ppm. However, the results of the abandoned site (e.g., SP) were about three orders of magnitude lower than the others so as to merely exceed the typical ambient concentration levels. It was most striking to find a systematic dominance of toluene over other aromatic VOC under most circumstances. The LFG flux values of all aromatic VOC and the four specific major ones (termed as BTEX: benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene) were also computed for each vent pipe from all study sites using their concentrations and the concurrently determined environmental parameters. The results, if calculated in terms of the average BTEX quantity emitted per vent pipe, showed that the magnitude of their emissions can vary substantially, with the values ranging from 0.05 (SP) to 49.2 kg yr⁻¹ (WJ in wintertime). The LFG flux values of aromatic VOC, when compared to the contribution of non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHC), were able to explain a constant, but minor, proportion of the LFG carbon budget.     

Emission of volatile organic compounds from religious and ritual activities in India

Worshipping activity is a customary practice related with many religions and cultures in various Asian countries, including India. Smoke from incense burning in religious and ritual places produces a large number of health-damaging and carcinogenic air pollutants include volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as formaldehyde, benzene, 1,3 butadiene, styrene, etc. This study evaluates real-world VOCs emission conditions in contrast to other studies that examined emissions from specific types of incense or biomass material. Sampling was conducted at four different religious places in Raipur City, District Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India: (1) Hindu temples, (2) Muslim graveyards (holy shrines), (3) Buddhist temples, and (4) marriage ceremony. Concentrations of selected VOCs, respirable particulate matter (aerodynamic diameter, <5 μm), carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide were sampled from the smoke plumes. Benzene has shown highest emission factor (EF) among selected volatile organic compounds in all places. All the selected religious and ritual venues have shown different pattern of VOC EFs compared to laboratory-based controlled chamber studies.